One of the most notable figures in literary history is the primate character known as Sun Wukong, featured in the revered Chinese tale Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記), dated back to the late 16th century. The narrative chronicles the escapades of Sun Wukong, also referred to simply as “Monkey,” who is depicted as an immortal rhesus macaque demon. Through rigorous spiritual practices, he acquires remarkable abilities and ultimately challenges the celestial order. Similar to trickster figures like Loki from Norse folklore and Lucifer from Judeo-Christian tales, Sun Wukong experiences a fall from grace; in his case, he is exiled to Earth by the Buddha, the highest spiritual authority. Unlike his Western equivalents, however, he experiences a transformation, adopting the role of a monk to protect a Buddhist priest on a pilgrimage to acquire sacred texts from India.
Overview of the Narrative
The tale commences with mystical forces from heaven and earth merging, impregnating a boulder located high on the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit (Huaguo shan, 花果山), situated on an eastern island in the Buddhist cosmological framework. After countless ages, during the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE), this boulder hatches into a stone egg, which is handled by natural forces until it takes on the shape of a monkey. Awakening as the Stone Monkey (Shihou, 石猴), he humbly bows to the cardinal directions, emitting a brilliant light that reaches the heavens, thus capturing the attention of the Jade Emperor (Yuhuang dadi, 玉皇大帝) and his celestial court. Eventually, this overwhelming radiance dims following his first taste of food.
Sun Wukong soon encounters fellow primates, swiftly establishing himself as their king after a daring leap through a waterfall that leads him to a hidden cave belonging to an immortal. He reigns over the mountain in tranquility for over 300 years until the inevitability of death spurs him to seek immortality. Following an advisor’s counsel, he sets sail in a rudimentary raft, venturing into the world for a decade. His pursuit ultimately leads him to the western continent, where he is accepted as a disciple by the sage Subodhi (Xuputi, 须菩提). Here, he receives the name Sun Wukong, translating to “Monkey awakened to emptiness.” Under Subodhi’s mentorship, he learns numerous transformative techniques, the secrets of cloud-flight allowing him to cover immense distances, and various magical spells, enabling an array of extraordinary feats including superhuman strength and granting resurrection.
After returning to his domain, Sun confronts a formidable demon that has tormented his kin during his absence. His victory propels him to seek a weapon worthy of his celestial prowess, leading him to the Eastern Sea’s underwater palace, where he tries various weapons without success. At last, he claims a massive iron staff, known as the “As-You-Will Gold-Banded Cudgel” (Ruyi jingu bang, 如意金箍棒), which responds to his volition, solidifying their destined partnership. Additionally, he coerces the Dragon King’s brothers into gifting him magical armor.
Upon his return to the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit, he transforms into a colossal giant to demonstrate his new weapon’s might, prompting the demon kings to pledge allegiance to him. However, this prideful act leads to his soul being dragged to the underworld, where he learns he is destined to perish at 342 years old. This stirs his fury, leading him to erase his name from the records of hell, thereby granting immortality not only to himself but to all monkeys globally. Upon regaining consciousness, Sun learns of the repercussions of his actions, leading to further conflict with heavenly forces.
The Eastern Dragon King and the Hell King Qinguang (秦廣王) petition the Jade Emperor regarding Sun Wukong’s behavior. To prevent further unrest, the Jade Emperor assigns him the humble task of managing the Heavenly Horses. Discontent with this menial role, Sun openly rebels, heralding himself as the “Great Sage Equaling Heaven” (Qitian dasheng, 齊天大聖). In retaliation, the heavenly hierarchy dispatches powerful demon hunters who are ultimately defeated by Sun’s overwhelming strength and magic. The situation prompts the Jade Emperor to elevate Sun’s rank, designating him to oversee the heavenly peach groves.
Despite enjoying the magical peaches that offer extended life, Sun succumbs to temptation and consumes them, inciting the wrath of the Queen Mother of the West’s attendants. Consequently, he crashes a celestial banquet, guzzles ethereal wine, and consumes alchemical elixirs meant to enhance life further, setting off alarm bells within heaven.
In frustration at Sun’s antics, the Jade Emperor assembles an extensive army of deities and celestial soldiers, leading to an epic clash. Although radiant with power, Sun is ultimately outmaneuvered by a master of magic, Erlang (Erlang shen, 二郎神), who eventually subdues him. Capture leads to a failed execution attempt; even being thrown into an alchemical furnace proves ineffective. Instead, he emerges unharmed after finding shelter in a powerful elemental force while gaining enhanced abilities.
Release and Continuation
Chapters 13 through 100 recount how, after six centuries, Sun is freed during the Tang Dynasty (618-907) to assist the monk Tripitaka (Sanzang, 三藏), a reincarnated being tasked with gathering scriptures from India. Guanyin (觀音) endows Tripitaka with a magical headband to control Sun’s behavior; it tightens painfully whenever a specific incantation is recited. Journeying alongside Tripitaka, Monkey encounters fellow allies: Zhu Bajie (猪八戒), the lusty pig demon; Sha Wujing (沙悟净), the easy-going water demon; and the White Dragon Horse (Bailongma, 白龍馬), a serpent turned steed. Throughout the treacherous journey, Monkey battles an array of demons, gods, and other supernatural entities, ultimately achieving Buddhahood and the title of “Victorious Fighting Buddha” (Dou zhanzheng fo, 鬥戰勝佛).
Literary Sequels and Cultural Significance
Four unofficial sequels to the story exist, with the first, A Supplement to the Journey to the West (Xiyoubu, 西游补), chronicling Monkey’s further escapades between chapters 61 and 62. The Later Journey to the West (Hou Xiyouji, 後西遊記) follows the adventures of Sun Luzhen, a spiritual descendant of Monkey. Other sequels include Continuation of the Journey to the West (Xu Xiyouji, 續西遊記) and New Journey to the West (Xin Xiyouji, 新西遊記).
Sun Wukong’s tales have captivated audiences globally for generations, becoming particularly prominent through folk performances during the Song Dynasty. The narrative has inspired an array of adaptations across various artistic forms, establishing himself as a celebrated figure in popular culture. The far-reaching influence of his character stretches beyond literature, inspiring worship in several Asian cultures.
In Japan, versions of the story surfaced in the 17th century, evolving through adaptations in modern media. Notably, the character Son Goku from the Dragon Ball franchise draws heavily from Sun Wukong, resonating with audiences through his martial prowess, characteristics, and quests.
Sun Wukong’s mythos continues to thrive in various modern expressions, asserting his lasting legacy in imagination and culture.
