In ancient Greece, mythology served as both a historical record and a framework for shaping political ideologies. Unlike the contemporary understanding of the term “myth,” which often implies fiction, ancient myths were considered an alternate reality. The emergence of Theseus as a prominent national figure in Athens can be traced to various historical and political changes that transpired throughout the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.
The legend surrounding Theseus suggests that he lived in the Late Bronze Age, likely a generation before the renowned Homeric heroes of the Trojan War. The earliest mentions of Theseus are found in Homer’s epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, dating back to approximately the early eighth century B.C. His most significant accomplishment was the Synoikismos, which unified the twelve local settlements of Attica into what became known as Athens.
Theseus’ journey can be categorized into two key phases: his youth and his reign as king of Athens. Aegeus, the king of Athens, along with the sea god Poseidon, both fathered Theseus with his mother, Aithra, on the same night, thereby granting Theseus a unique divine and royal lineage. Born in Troezen, located in the Peloponnesos, Theseus ventured around the Saronic Gulf and encountered several infamous robbers, defeating six notorious brigands along his way.
Upon reaching Athens, Theseus was recognized by his stepmother, Medea, who viewed him as a potential threat to her authority. She concocted multiple schemes to eliminate him, including using poisoned drinks and arranging for him to battle the Marathonian Bull.
Among Theseus’ most iconic exploits is the defeat of the Minotaur, a creature that was half-man, half-bull, who resided within the labyrinth of King Minos in Crete. To appease the Minotaur, Athens was forced to send a tribute of seven boys and seven girls annually. Determined to liberate his city, Theseus volunteered to be among the sacrificed youths. While on Crete, he won the affection of Ariadne, Minos’ daughter, who aided his escape by providing him with a ball of string to navigate through the maze. Though he successfully escaped with Ariadne, he regrettably abandoned her on the island of Naxos during their journey back. In accordance with Aegeus’ instructions, Theseus was to signal his victory with a white sail; however, he forgot and returned with a black sail, leading Aegeus to believe that his son had died. In mourning, Aegeus plunged into the sea, which was thereafter named after him, making Theseus the new king of Athens.
Subsequent references to Theseus’s later life are sparse and are primarily drawn from early Archaic period literature, notably from the works of lyric poets. Theseus formed a close bond with Peirithoos, the king of the Lapiths, embarking on various adventures. This included a significant expedition against the Amazons, during which he kidnapped and married their queen, Antiope. This act incited the Amazons to besiege Athens, a moment that would become a popular subject in later art.
Certain elements of Theseus’s mythos seem to have been influenced by Herakles, a more universally renowned hero during the early sixth century B.C. For instance, Theseus’ confrontations with robbers echo Herakles’s own legendary twelve labors. Furthermore, their respective tales of battles against the Amazons and Centaurs show thematic parallels. Yet, where Herakles’ narrative is a series of rigid heroic accomplishments, Theseus’s story reveals a more relatable human experience, involving personal growth and kingship.
The first confirmed artistic depiction of Theseus appears on the François Vase, crafted around 570 B.C., portraying his Cretan adventure among the limited pre-540 B.C. representations. Following this period, from 540 to 525 B.C., depictions of Theseus surged, largely on pottery, primarily emphasizing his role in defeating the Minotaur. By 525 B.C., artistic portrayals of Theseus expanded to incorporate various aspects of his narrative, including encounters with brigands and his marriage to Antiope. From 490 to 480 B.C., there was a shift toward illustrating the Amazonomachy and other lesser-known episodes from Theseus’s myth, such as his visit to Poseidon’s palace, as recorded by the poet Bacchylides.
The increased visibility of Theseus in Athenian culture closely mirrors significant historical events and political changes. In the early to mid-sixth century B.C., Solon initiated reforms aimed at expanding democratic participation, and the unification of Attica through the Synoikismos provided an important historical precedent. Solon’s reforms paralleled Theseus’s actions as king, wherein he established the Panathenaia festival and opened Athens to outsiders, greatly enhancing the city’s cultural landscape.
After the rise of the tyrant Peisistratus in 546 B.C., the importance of Theseus grew even more pronounced, correlating with the increase in his artistic representation. Peisistratus embraced Theseus not just as the national hero but as a personal emblem, linking his rule to the mythology surrounding the Cretan adventures to reinforce his authority and deepen civic pride among Athenians.
Under Kleisthenes, the city-state underwent further reorganization into a more inclusive democratic system, mirroring the historical Synoikismos. Kleisthenes prominently featured Theseus in the metopes of the Athenian treasury at Delphi, allowing him to be recognized by individuals from across the Greek world.
In the early to mid-fifth century B.C., the oligarch Kimon became an essential figure in the promotion of Theseus. After the first Persian invasion, Theseus transformed into a symbol of Athenian resilience and power. During this time, the Amazonomachy emerged as a crucial piece of iconography, drawing parallels with the east’s invaders. In 476 B.C., Kimon returned the bones of Theseus to Athens and constructed a shrine adorned with intricate depictions of critical myths, solidifying Theseus’s status as the quintessential hero of Athens.
