In the ancient Greek civilization, myths served as a vital means of documenting history and legitimizing political initiatives. While today’s understanding often equates “myth” with “fiction,” in the past, myths represented an alternative version of reality. The elevation of Theseus to the status of Athens’ national hero is evident in the development of his portrayals in Athenian artistry, which emerged from numerous historical and political changes during the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.
The legends surrounding Theseus indicate that he lived in the Late Bronze Age, likely a generation prior to the legendary heroes featured in the Trojan War. The earliest mentions of Theseus appear in Homer’s epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, composed around the early eighth century B.C. His most notable feat was the Synoikismos, which unified the twelve districts, or demes, of Attica into a cohesive political and economic unit that would become Athens.
Theseus’ life can be categorized into two main phases: his youth and his reign as the king of Athens. Aegeus, the king of Athens, and Poseidon, the god of the sea, both were involved with his mother, Aithra, in the same night, providing Theseus with both royal and divine heritage. Born in Troezen, situated in the Peloponnesos, he later journeyed around the Saronic Gulf, through places like Epidauros and Eleusis, before reaching Athens. Throughout this journey, he confronted and defeated six infamous robbers known for targeting travelers.
Upon his arrival in Athens, Theseus caught the attention of his stepmother Medea, who perceived him as a rival to her influence. In a bid to eliminate him, she tried to poison him, plotted an ambush with the Pallantidae Giants, and sent him to confront the Marathonian Bull.
Theseus’ most celebrated exploit was the defeat of the Minotaur. This beast, a creature that was half man and half bull, resided in the labyrinth of Minos in Crete, and Athens was required to send an annual tribute of seven youths and seven maidens to appease it. To put an end to this ordeal, Theseus volunteered as a tribute, and while in Crete, he charmed Minos’ daughter, Ariadne, who aided him in navigating the labyrinth by providing him with a thread. After killing the Minotaur, Theseus fled with Ariadne but ultimately deserted her on Naxos en route back to Athens. Failing to recall his father’s instructions to raise a white sail upon his return if victorious, he instead returned under a black sail. In despair, Aegeus plunged from Cape Sounion into the Aegean sea, marking Theseus as the new king of Athens and giving the sea its name.
There is limited documentation of Theseus’ later accomplishments, primarily from early Archaic literature. He embarked on various adventures with Peirithoos, a king from Thessaly, and engaged in a campaign against the Amazons, during which he abducted their queen, Antiope, whom he married. This enraged the Amazons, leading to a siege of Athens, an event frequently depicted in later art.
Certain elements of the Theseus myth were clearly inspired by the more renowned hero Herakles during the early sixth century B.C. There are parallels in their encounters with brigands, and both heroes participated in conflicts involving the Amazons and Centaurs. However, Theseus’ narrative embodies the growth and evolution of a genuine character, in contrast to Herakles’ life, which appears as a series of ongoing heroic feats. Theseus’ ascension to kingship solidified his connection to Athens’ historical lineage, in contrast to Herakles’ more detached nature, hence the eventual preference for Theseus as the local hero.
The earliest known artistic depiction of Theseus appears on the François Vase in Florence, dating from around 570 B.C. This black-figure krater illustrates his exploits in Crete and represents one of the few depictions of him prior to 540 B.C. Following this period, a notable increase in Theseus’ representations occurred, primarily in painted pottery focused on his heroism against the Minotaur. By around 525 B.C., the iconography diversified to showcase more of his adventures, particularly with brigands and Antiope. From 490 to 480 B.C., artistic focus shifted toward the Amazonomachy and other lesser-known stories, such as Theseus’ visit to Poseidon’s realm, which is mentioned by the poet Bacchylides. During 450 to 430 B.C., images of Theseus on vases decreased while the representations in other forms of art grew. Mid-fifth century B.C. art emphasized his youthful exploits prominently in significant structures like the Parthenon and Hephaisteion.
The increasing recognition of Theseus within Athenian culture aligns with significant historical events and political transformations. In the early sixth century B.C., the Athenian leader Solon began initial reforms aimed at establishing democracy. Notably, Athenian democracy was not comparable to modern interpretations as it still favored male citizens. However, the foundation of such governance could align with the precedent of Synoikismos, encouraging Solon to amplify the significance of Theseus. His rule also came with symbolic links between myth and contemporary political happenings, such as the conquest of Eleusis and the establishment of the Panathenaia, crucial to the city’s religious identity.
When Peisistratos assumed power in 546 B.C., he enhanced the existing shrine for Theseus and heavily promoted his image through various artistic outlets, increasing the hero’s relevance to his political strategy. Peisistratos viewed Theseus not just as Athens’ national hero but also as a personal symbol, using his Cretan legends to foster ties with the sanctuary of Delos and reforming the festival of Apollo. This period marked a shift where Theseus began to eclipse Herakles in Athenian pride.
Later, under Kleisthenes, the city-state underwent further democratization, possibly mimicking the organization seen during the Synoikismos. Kleisthenes emphasized Theseus’ legacy by featuring him in the metopes of the Athenian treasury at Delphi, ensuring visibility across Greek city-states.
In the early to mid-fifth century B.C., Kimon, an oligarch, emerged as a significant advocate for Theseus. Following the initial Persian invasion, Theseus came to symbolize Athens’ strength and resilience. The Amazonomachy, in particular, gained prominence as the Amazons represented the eastern invaders. In 476 B.C., Kimon returned Theseus’ remains to Athens, erecting a shrine embellished with scenes encompassing the Amazonomachy, Centauromachy, and Cretan adventures, solidifying Theseus’ status as a national hero.
