The Significance of Ra in Ancient Egyptian Religion
Ra, also known as Re, stands as the revered sun god within the pantheon of ancient Egyptian deities. One of the most venerated figures in Egyptian mythology, Ra is mixed with other gods like Horus, forming identities such as Ra-Horakhty (the morning sun), Amun (the noonday sun), and Atum (the evening sun), symbolizing the essence of life-giving energy.
The name “Ra” signifies ‘sun’ in Egyptian. As the embodiment of the sun, Ra represents its potent energy and, intriguingly, is also visualized as the sun itself. He is depicted as a magnificent deity traveling his celestial vessel through the sky, illuminating the world by day and journeying into the underworld at dusk. As he ventures through the dark realm beneath, he continually battles Apophis, the colossal serpent intent on stopping the sun from rising and, thus, threatening life on Earth.
Scholar Richard H. Wilkinson asserts that Ra is “arguably Egypt’s most important deity,” attributed not only to his solar relationships but also to his significant role in the narrative of later gods (205). Amun, whose following grew so strong it approached a sort of monotheism, evolved from Ra’s lore and shares numerous mythological elements with him. Horus, reflecting the living king, likewise follows this tradition, as Ra is referred to as the “king and father of the king.” His mythological connections extend to Atum, with their names frequently interchanged in various creation accounts.
Wilkinson recommends organizing the exploration of Ra into five key facets:
- Ra in the Heavens
- Ra on Earth
- Ra in the Netherworld
- Ra as Creator
- Ra as King and Father of the King
This structured approach is particularly fitting given Ra’s vast powers, his pivotal role in Egyptian belief systems, and his lengthy historical significance. Ra’s worship commenced in the Old Kingdom around 2613-2181 BCE and persisted for nearly two millennia, only to be overshadowed by the rise of Christianity.
Early Depictions, Origin, and Worship
Ra’s earliest references appear in the Pyramid Texts, dated approximately between 2400-2300 BCE, recognized as the world’s oldest religious literature inscribed in royal tombs at Saqqara. Within these texts, Ra is depicted as gathering the king’s soul and guiding it towards the paradisiacal Field of Reeds on his radiant barge. By this time, Ra’s cult had already taken root, deriving from ancient oral traditions. His primary worship site was Iunu, known in Greek as Heliopolis, meaning “city of the sun god.” Notably, he was portrayed not merely as the highest deity but also as the personification of divine order and balance.
Most representations of Ra feature the falcon-headed deity Ra-Horakhty adorned with a solar disc above his head. He is characterized as the Self-Created-One in creation myths, standing upon the primordial mound amid chaotic waters, establishing order, giving birth to other gods, and sculpting the world. His authority is bolstered by Heka, the deity of magic, which was viewed by the ancient Egyptians as a divine force enabling existence itself and promoting transformation. Ra, as the initial god, not only created Heka but wielded it, leading to the birth of Heka as a force that controlled divine magic.
As a sun deity, Ra was linked to Horus, the sky god, worshipped as Ra-Horakhty, while simultaneously identified with Atum as a creator deity. He also shares connections with Amun, the ineffable representation of existence. He is customarily depicted with the solar disc overhead, sometimes also manifesting as a scarab beetle beneath the disc in the form of Ra-Khepri. By the Second Dynasty, Ra’s worship was firmly established, involving temple sacrifices. The 5th Dynasty kings aligned their reigns with Ra, leading to the construction of Sun Temples.
Ra in the Heavens
The Pyramid Texts associate Ra with the sky and attribute to him sun and life energies. However, a later document, the Book of the Heavenly Cow, contemplates Ra’s departure from Earth, where he once reigned, to ascend to the heavens. Though thought to have originated in some capacity during Egypt’s First Intermediate Period (2181-2040 BCE), this text was written predominantly in the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE) with surviving copies from the New Kingdom (c. 1570 – c. 1069 BCE).
In this narrative, Ra grows old and becomes aware of human plots against him. Disturbed by their ingratitude, he convenes a council of gods, who urge him to punish humanity. He unleashes The Eye of Ra—often represented as a goddess—to wreak vengeance. Hathor serves as the personification of this power, inflicting casualties until Ra recognizes his mistake and implores her to cease. Hathor, in her frenzied state, transforms into Sekhmet, who is beyond reason. Ra concocts a plan to incapacitate her by offering her beer dyed red to mimic blood, and after drinking, she returns to her previous benevolence as Hathor.
Feeling exhausted by earthly governance, Ra requests Nut to transport him to the heavens. She transforms into a celestial cow, carrying him skyward, during which Ra organizes the cosmos and delegates responsibility for Earth to other deities. From that point onwards, humans must uphold order according to the divine dictates, while Ra merely oversees his journey across the sky.
Ra on Earth
Before his celestial ascension, Ra exercised dominion over his creations. He laid down laws that would later be imparted to humanity by Osiris and Isis during their golden age, before Set’s treachery and eventual defeat at the hands of Horus, Osiris and Isis’ son, who restored equilibrium. Ra’s influence emerged through sunlight, agricultural growth, and seasonal changes. As Wilkinson notes:
“An important example of Ra’s influence can be observed in that the god was said to direct the three seasons of the Egyptian year, thus overseeing the Nile’s annual flooding and the subsequent agricultural cycles.” (206)
Shrines known as Houses of Life, closely associated with temples, allowed for works produced by scribes to be safeguarded, with Thoth and his consort Seshat overseeing the preservation of knowledge. The written word, crucial for documenting history and maintaining order, was bestowed by Thoth but stemmed ultimately from Ra, viewing the Houses of Life as manifestations of Ra himself.
Ra in the Netherworld
In his nightly journey, Ra transitioned from his daytime barque to the underworld on an evening vessel called the Ship of a Million Souls, gathering the souls of the deceased for passage to the Field of Reeds. During this voyage, Ra’s essence united with Osiris, the lord of the dead, turning into the dual entity known as Ra-Osiris.
In this incarnation, Ra collaborates intimately with Osiris, perhaps affirming the just souls before navigating them through the darkness towards paradise’s dawn. Their journey encounters the peril of Apophis, who seeks to thwart Ra and hinder the sunrise. The crew of gods aboard, augmented by the justified dead, confront the serpent, with the living on Earth bolstering their efforts through rituals aimed at empowering Ra’s defense. Despite relentless night attacks by Apophis, Ra triumphs every time, heralding each sunrise as a sign of his victory.
Ra as Creator
While various gods are credited with creation in ancient Egyptian lore, Ra consistently emerges as a central figure. Tales of creation often feature Atum, Ptah, and the goddess Neith, but they all reflect the essence and attributes of Ra. In essence, Ra is recognized as being present at the beginning of creation, regardless of the name utilized in various narratives.
In one of the predominant myths, before anything existed besides chaotic waters, Ra emerged from the primordial mound—the ben-ben. In a profound act, he causes drops of blood from his body to manifest Hu (authority) and Sia (mind). Feeling solitary, he joins with his shadow to give rise to Shu (the air god) and Tefnut (the moisture goddess), who then venture out to shape the world. After discovering their absence, Ra dispatches the Eye of Ra to search for them. Upon their return, Ra’s joyful tears fall upon the ben-ben, birthing humanity.
Recognizing humanity’s need for housing, Shu and Tefnut procreate, leading to the birth of Geb (earth) and Nut (sky). Their lineage extends to Osiris, Isis, Set, Nephthys, and Horus the Elder, from whom all gods descend. The contributions of Heka, one of the earliest deities, are pivotal, having been instilled with transformative abilities to ensure all deities oversee their designated domains, fostering balance and order.
Ra as King and Father of the King
In ancient Egyptian culture, balance served as a cornerstone principle, exemplified by the reigning king. It was believed that the ruler was divinely sanctioned to maintain harmony. King Userkaf of the 5th Dynasty epitomized this ideal, elevating Ra’s veneration to a state-like elevation and urging his subjects to emulate Ra’s virtues. He constructed the Sun Temple of Ra and further established the custom of erecting temples in Ra’s honor, which persisted throughout Egyptian history.
Following Userkaf, each subsequent king constructed temples to Ra, strengthening the association between sovereigns and divine endorsement. The monikers “sons of Ra” were ascribed to monarchs, reinforcing their role as agents of the god on earth. Ra was increasingly understood as the ruler of the gods and referred to as “King and Father of the King.” This belief positioned the king as both a demigod and the direct representative of Ra, ensuring the maintenance of societal order.
In later periods, particularly during the New Kingdom, Horus took precedence over Ra as the deity associated with living monarchs, with Osiris governing the afterlife. Nevertheless, the essence of Ra was thought to underpin the powers ascribed to both Horus and Osiris due to his role as the Self-Created source of all.
Conclusion
Ra, serving as the hidden force behind the numerous gods constituting the Egyptian pantheon, influenced not just the solar deities but also celebrated goddesses including Bastet, Hathor, and Isis. Associated with life’s vitality in the solar form, Ra was synonymous with the Breath of Life as Amun. He is frequently illustrated as Ra-Horakhty, presenting the ankh—symbolizing life—to kings.
Ra’s enduring prominence is evident even during the reign of Akhenaten (1353-1336 BCE), known for suppressing other divine worship, yet allowing the venerating of Ra to continue, likely due to Akhenaten’s own solar deity, Aten, derived from Ra’s characteristics.
As Akhenaten’s successor, Tutankhamun (r. c. 1336 – c. 1327 BCE), reinstated traditional worship, Ra’s cult regained its influential stature and shaped the iconography of other deities. The legacy of Ra continued to permeate ancient Egyptian culture, gradually diminishing during the Roman Period until the advent of Christianity led to the decline of Ra’s worship.
