Ra: The Sun God of Ancient Egypt
Ra, also known as Re, represents one of the most ancient and essential deities within the ancient Egyptian pantheon. Over time, this solar god became intertwined with other significant figures such as Horus, culminating in the composite deity Ra-Horakhty, which signifies the morning sun. Ra is also connected to Amun, the midday representation of the sun, and Atum, associated with the evening sun, all of which embody the primal energy that sustains life.
The term “Ra” translates directly to “sun” in Egyptian culture. As a solar deity, Ra personified the sun’s strength and was considered to be the sun itself, envisioned as the powerful god navigating the skies in a solar barge during the daytime, only to descend into the underworld at night. His nightly journey was fraught with danger as Ra faced the formidable serpent Apophis (or Apep), who represented chaos and sought to prevent the sun’s re-emergence, thereby threatening the existence of life on earth.
Scholar Richard H. Wilkinson regards Ra as perhaps the most crucial deity in Egypt, due not only to his vital solar connection but also for his role in the emergence of subsequent gods (205). The deity Amun, who amassed immense popularity with nearly monotheistic devotion, evolved from Ra and absorbed aspects of his mythology. Likewise, Horus, linked with the living pharaoh, followed Ra’s example, being acknowledged as the “king and father of the king.” Additionally, Ra’s name was often exchanged with that of the creator god Atum across various creation myths.
In discussions about Ra, Wilkinson recommends dividing the analysis into five distinct aspects:
- Ra in the Heavens
- Ra on Earth
- Ra in the Netherworld
- Ra as Creator
- Ra as King and Father of the King
This structured approach is particularly fitting for Ra due to the extent of his influence, the critical role he played in Egyptian faith, and his extensive historical presence. Worship of Ra was firmly established by the time of Egypt’s Old Kingdom (circa 2613-2181 BCE) and persisted for almost twenty centuries, until his veneration was overshadowed by Christianity.
Early Worship and Iconography
The earliest known references to Ra appear in the Pyramid Texts (circa 2400-2300 BCE), among the most ancient religious texts globally. These inscriptions on tombs at Saqqara describe Ra summoning the soul of the king and taking him to the idyllic paradise known as the Field of Reeds aboard his golden barge. Ra’s cult had already been deeply integrated into Egyptian society at the time these texts were recorded, which likely draw on a much older oral tradition. His principal worship site was located in Iunu (commonly called Heliopolis, translating to “city of the sun god”). In these ancient texts, Ra is depicted not merely as the supreme deity but as the physical manifestation of divine order and balance.
Ra is predominantly illustrated as a falcon-headed figure (Ra-Horakhty), often adorned with a solar disc above his head. He is referred to as the Self-Created One in creation myths, emerging from the primordial mound amidst chaotic waters to establish order, create other gods, and bring forth the cosmos. His ability to bring forth life was facilitated through the magical force Heka, which was essential to all existence and transformation. As the first deity, Ra invented Heka, giving rise to its personification who later maintained this divine magic.
This transformative aspect linked Ra with the sun’s power for growth. As the sun god, he became associated with Horus, the sky deity, while in his role as a creator, he was closely associated with Atum. Additionally, in his role representing order and balance, he connected with Amun, the ineffable embodiment of existence, who was later termed Amun-Ra. Most depictions show him as the falcon-headed Ra-Horakhty, sometimes illustrated as a scarab below the solar disc, known then as Ra-Khepri. By the Second Dynasty of Egypt, his worship had become firmly embedded in the cultural fabric of the society, with sacrifices made in his temples. The construction of the Sun Temples was a distinguishing feature of the 5th Dynasty, as kings increasingly tied their reigns to Ra’s worship.
Ra’s Celestial and Earthly Influence
In the Pyramid Texts, Ra’s connection to the heavens is firmly established as he ascends above the earth he once governed directly. The Book of the Heavenly Cow, a later composition likely originating during the First Intermediate Period (2181-2040 BCE) and formally written in the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE), narrates how Ra, aged and discontent with humanity’s ingratitude, summoned other gods and decided to depart from the mortal realm. The Eye of Ra, depicted as a goddess, was called to aid in punishing humanity.
Hathor was chosen as the Eye of Ra, which led to devastating violence against humankind when she transformed into the wrathful Sekhmet. Eventually, to quell her fury, Ra devised a clever plan using beer dyed red to resemble blood, allowing Hathor to consume it and revert to her benevolent form. With his resolve waning, Ra asked the goddess Nut to assist him in ascending to the heavens. Nut became a celestial cow and bore Ra skyward, ensuring that he would continue to direct the universe while the other gods managed the world in his absence.
Ra’s Role in the Netherworld and Creation
Ra’s earthly reign was characterized by his direct oversight over natural cycles, including the three seasons of the Egyptian year which governed the flooding of the Nile and subsequent agricultural cycles. Temples known as Houses of Life were established for the preservation of texts, under Thoth’s guardianship, the god of writing and secrets. Notably, Ra also had a pivotal role in the Netherworld transition; during his diurnal journey, he transformed his barge into the Ship of a Million Souls. This vessel collected justified souls to guide them to the Field of Reeds. In this context, Ra was merged with Osiris, acting together in the judgment of souls.
Across the night, Ra’s barge faced the relentless night-time assault from Apophis. With every engagement, the gods, joined by the justified souls, battled to secure the dawn. This cyclical victory signified Ra’s eternal dominance over chaos and death, affirming the Egyptians’ belief in a continual rebirth and the promise of another day.
Mythical variations of the afterlife journey, including the well-known Book of the Dead, emphasize Ra’s role in the weighing of the heart against Ma’at’s feather during the judgment process presided over by Osiris.
Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of Ra
As a central figure of authority and the embodiment of balance within Egyptian culture, Ra’s influence permeated through all societal aspects. This was significantly embodied in the royal lineage as pharaohs were seen as divine emissaries, dutifully upholding Ra’s principles. The 5th Dynasty notably solidified Ra’s worship with the establishment of temples dedicated to him, fostering a tradition that continued through history.
Even during Akhenaten’s tumultuous reign, when traditional beliefs were challenged, Ra’s cult persisted, largely due to the close association between Akhenaten’s favored deity, Aten, and Ra. Following the restoration of traditional worship under Tutankhamun, Ra’s importance was reignited, manifesting in artistic depictions across various divine representations.
Ra’s legacy endured until the gradual decline of pagan worship in favor of Christianity, a testament to his significance in the ancient Egyptian religious landscape.
