Roman religion, often referred to within the context of Roman mythology, encapsulates the beliefs and practices of the inhabitants of the Italian peninsula from ancient times to the rise of Christianity in the 4th century CE, during what is known as Classical antiquity.
Nature and Significance
According to Cicero, a well-known orator and politician, the Romans had a remarkable wisdom, understanding that all things fell under the governance of the gods. Their religious framework was built not on divine grace but on mutual trust, termed fides, which served as a bond between deity and follower. The central aim of Roman religion was to ensure the cooperation, goodwill, and harmony of the gods, known as pax deorum. The Romans were convinced that this divine support enabled them to conquer the unknown forces of nature that evoked both wonder and fear (religio), thus enabling a successful existence.
This belief system gave rise to a series of established guidelines, referred to as jus divinum, which dictated actions to be taken or avoided. For centuries, these rules had minimal moral content; they primarily outlined the proper conduct of rituals. Roman religious practice placed heavy emphasis on cult rituals, which were imbued with the same reverence as patriotic customs. The ceremonial practices of the Romans were exceedingly meticulous and traditional, preserving early thoughts within the layers of subsequent adaptations over time. This creates a striking contrast with Greek religion, where earlier ideas are often obscured rather than preserved.
Unlike the Greeks, who had developed sophisticated and innovative ideas about divine entities and their connection to humanity, the Romans maintained a more orderly and legalistic view. They initially lacked the Greek penchant for depicting gods in human form or creating elaborate mythologies, leading some to argue that genuine Roman mythology was virtually absent. Discoveries in the 20th century, particularly in the Etruscan region, revealed that while Romans were not devoid of mythological thinking, their narratives were limited and largely derivative, often borrowing themes from Greek mythology for their nationalistic or familial tales.
Characteristics of Roman Religion
Roman religion was devoid of a formal creed; any Roman could hold personal beliefs about the gods as long as they adhered to prescribed religious practices. This absence of creed often led to a perception that displaying emotions during worship was inappropriate. Reconstructing the evolution of Roman religion is challenging due to its complex historical layers. Most literary sources come from much later, such as the antiquarians Varro and Verrius Flaccus, who penned their observations 700 to 800 years after Rome’s founding. Their works, influenced by Greek narratives, skewed their interpretations of earlier Roman beliefs.
To bolster their understandings, scholars often analyze remnants of religious calendars and inscriptions, alongside an extensive array of artifacts found in coins, medallions, and artistic expressions.
Early Roman Religion
Evidence of early Roman belief is largely derived from archaeological discoveries, although these findings fall short of providing a comprehensive account of archaic Roman spirituality. Nevertheless, they indicate that early during the 1st millennium BCE, Latin and Sabine pastoralists migrated from their respective hills to establish settlements in Rome. Around 620 BCE, these communities combined and, by approximately 575 BCE, the Forum Romanum emerged as a central site for social and market activities.
Deification of Functions
The early Romans exhibited a keen sense of the divine within the natural order and human activities. They recognized divine influences not merely in abstract concepts but in specific actions, evident in everyday occurrences like childbirth or the movement of celestial bodies. Such reverence became fragmented into numerous deities, each embodying distinct powers related to various aspects of life. These deities’ roles were precisely defined, so precise invocation of their names was crucial to secure their attention; using the correct title could facilitate communication with these divine entities. In the absence of a specific name, they often resorted to terms like “unknown” or collected various titles to cover all bases, ensuring their deference was sufficient to be heard by any deity.
