Roman Religion: A Distinct Overview of Beliefs and Practices
The practice and belief system of the inhabitants of the Italian peninsula from ancient eras until the rise of Christianity in the fourth century CE is referred to as Roman religion, often seen as a branch of Roman mythology. This tradition spans what is known as Classical antiquity. Cicero, a noted Roman orator and statesman, professed that Romans surpassed other civilizations due to their exceptional understanding that everything is subordinate to divine authority and governance. Instead of relying on divine grace, Roman religion was built on mutual trust (fides) between the divine and mortals. The essential purpose of their religious practices was to garner cooperation, goodwill, and “peace” from the gods (pax deorum). Romans believed that divine assistance was crucial for navigating the mysterious forces of their world, which evoked both awe and anxiety (religio), enabling them to thrive in daily life.
As a result, a framework emerged known as jus divinum (divine law), which dictated proper actions and prohibitions. For centuries, these guidelines lacked any significant moral implications, primarily outlining correct ritual performances. Ritual practices held predominant importance in Roman religion, elevated to a level akin to national pride. The meticulous and conservative nature of Roman rituals allowed for the identification of remnants of early beliefs, despite various later additions. This stands in contrast with Greek religion, where early remnants are often obscured. The ancient Greeks had already developed sophisticated and sometimes daring views on divinity by the time they began documenting their beliefs, whereas Romans maintained a more rigid and legalistic approach, holding onto their ancestral practices.
Interestingly, the Romans were initially influenced very little by Greek artistic portrayals of gods as anthropomorphic beings with rich mythologies. It’s often stated that real Roman mythology hardly exists; although archaeological findings, particularly from Etruria—located in the area between the Tiber and Arno rivers—indicate that Italians were not devoid of mythical elements, their mythology remains very minimal. What is often identified in Rome is primarily a form of pseudomythology, which reinterpreted their own national or familial stories through a Greek lens.
Furthermore, Roman religion did not adhere to a formal creed. A Roman citizen was free to hold personal beliefs about the gods, provided they fulfilled the essential religious duties appropriately. Interestingly, due to this absence of a creed, there was a general tendency to view emotional expressions as inappropriate during worship.
Despite some archaic aspects being visible, reconstructing the detailed history and evolution of Roman religion remains a challenge. The primary literary references available, written by antiquarians such as Varro and Verrius Flaccus during the first century BCE, emerged several centuries after Rome’s founding and reflect influences from Greek mythology. Consequently, scholars often look to surviving inscriptions, religious calendars, and even coins and artistic works to glean further insights into this ancient belief system.
Early Roman Religion and Archaeological Insights
Historical archaeological efforts yield some clues about early Roman religious practices. However, these findings are insufficient to provide a clear picture of archaic Roman beliefs. Evidence suggests that in the early first millennium BCE, Latin and Sabine herdsmen and farmers, equipped with light farming tools, established settlements in Rome, specifically with Latins residing on the Palatine Hill and Sabines, possibly, on nearby hills. By approximately 620 BCE, these communities merged, leading to the establishment of the Forum Romanum as a civic and market center around 575 BCE.
Deification of Functions in Roman Beliefs
The early Romans, much like various other Italian cultures, perceived divine forces manifesting through specific functions and activities, extending to human actions such as childbirth and external phenomena like solar movements or agricultural cycles. Their reverence often extended to repetitive occurrences and singular, extraordinary events, such as a miraculous voice believed to have provided guidance during a crisis (the figure of Aius Locutius).
This belief system resulted in an extraordinary level of “religious atomism,” where an array of deities was created, each representing distinct natural or human functions. Clarity and precision in names and titles were crucial in invoking these deities, as knowing the correct name often meant securing divine attention. For protection against potential misunderstandings, it was not uncommon to acknowledge a deity with phrases such as “unknown” or “whatever name you prefer” to ensure reverence was upheld among all potential divine beings.
