Information regarding military tactics can be gleaned from historical battle accounts, although many crucial military texts that would have guided commanders on the battlefield have been lost. Among these, the writings of Sextus Julius Frontinus stand out, with remnants of his insights included in the works of the historian Vegetius.
Importance of Terrain Selection
The strategic selection of battlefield terrain is essential in military engagements. Occupying elevated ground offers a significant advantage against the enemy, especially when deploying infantry against cavalry; rough terrain favors the infantry. Additionally, positioning oneself with the sun at their back can blind the enemy, while ensuring that any prevailing winds blow dust into their faces can disrupt visibility.
When constructing battle lines, it is crucial to maintain adequate spacing, with each soldier granted three feet and six feet between ranks. In practice, this means a contingent of 10,000 men could be organized in a formation measuring approximately 1,500 by 12 yards, with a recommendation against extending the front line further.
Typically, the infantry would be positioned in the center flanked by cavalry on both wings. The cavalry’s role is primarily defensive, protecting the infantry from being outflanked. Should a battle turn and a retreat begin, the cavalry would advance to engage routing enemies. Historically, infantry was the main fighting force while cavalry served as secondary units.
In cases where cavalry was inadequate, it was suggested to bolster their ranks with lightly armed foot soldiers. Vegetius emphasized the necessity of maintaining sufficient reserves to deter enemy encirclement or rear engagements by cavalry.
Defensive Formations
The Tortoise Formation
An excellent example of defensive ingenuity is the tortoise formation, where legionaries interlock their shields, with only the front rows exposed. This effectively creates a protective shell against missile attacks from the front or above, rendering them nearly invulnerable to aerial assaults.
The Wedge Formation
The wedge is a formation employed by advancing legionaries arranged in a triangle to penetrate enemy lines, with the point led by a single soldier. This structure allows smaller units to push deep into enemy ranks, causing chaos and limiting their control of space. The legionary gladius, designed for thrusting, proved particularly effective in this scenario.
The Saw Formation
Conversely, the saw formation consists of a unit positioned right behind the front line, capable of lateral movement down the line to counter any emerging weaknesses, effectively responding to the wedge formation of the enemy.
Skirmishing Tactics
The skirmishing formation differs significantly from tightly packed battle lines, utilizing wide spacing to enhance mobility. This setup not only facilitated movement over difficult terrain but also facilitated rapid strikes followed by retreat.
Repelling Cavalry
To counter a cavalry charge, Roman formations would adopt a defensive strategy, where soldiers created a solid wall with shields facing outward, while their spears would present a formidable barrier to any approaching cavalry. This tactic was particularly deadly against less-disciplined enemy cavalry.
The Orb Formation
The orb is a defensive structure resembling a circle, suited for units that find themselves surrounded. This formation allows for measured defense and affords units a chance to regroup with the main army or make a disciplined last stand.
Tactical Layouts from Vegetius
According to Vegetius, effective battlefield arrangements include a central deployment with fortified wings and reserves situated behind. One recommendation involves an oblique line of battle, with one wing held defensively while the other maneuvers to flank the opposing force, adapting based on terrain.
Further recommendations include employing a strong left wing to outmaneuver a potentially weak enemy flank or coalescing the wings while leaving the center back— a maneuver that can surprise the enemy and expose their center to targeting.
All outlined tactics aim to disrupt and dismantle enemy formations. A single weak point within an enemy line can be exploited by a concentrated force, making it imperative for generals to stay alert to shifts in the battlefield.
Byzantine Warfare
Transitioning to the Byzantine era, military tactics evolved significantly. Cavalry became the primary force, supported by infantry typically used for ranged attacks. Certain pivotal texts, such as Maurice’s Strategicon and Leo VI’s Tactica, guide the sophisticated strategic and tactical frameworks that emerged during this period.
Byzantine formations often kept infantry positioned further back, creating a “refused” center, compelling any attacks on the infantry to occur through the entrenched wings of cavalry, ready to unleash devastating counterattacks.
Specific strategies tailored to encounter various foes—including the Franks, Magyars, and Saracens—illustrated the adaptability of Byzantine tactics. For instance, against the Franks, ambushes were favored due to their lack of discipline, while the light cavalry of the Magyars necessitated a front-line of archers to control engagements at a distance.
The Saracens represented a unique challenge, as they later adopted some Byzantine tactics. The Byzantine response typically involved rapid mobilization of cavalry to track and deter the Saracen forces, often employing maneuvering tactics to surround and isolate the enemy during a retreat.
Byzantine military manuals also contain tactical guidance specific to various types of enemies, revealing a detailed and methodical approach to warfare that stemmed from centuries of accumulated knowledge.
Conclusion
Strategically sound military tactics, whether Roman or Byzantine, underscore the importance of organized formations and adaptability to evolving battlefield conditions. By capitalizing on terrain and maintaining disciplined unit formations, these ancient armies showcased remarkable innovation and resilience in their military strategies.
