This week, we delve into a two-part exploration concerning Apollo, considered one of the most pivotal Hellenic deities revered in Rome. The question arises: How did this Greek god gain such a prominent status within Roman culture? Let’s examine both the tangible and intangible influences of Apollo in the heart of Rome.
The concept of gods is profoundly intriguing; they inhabit the collective consciousness of humanity while existing only in an abstract sense, and their worship varies over time and place. Apollo stands as a hallmark example. Introduced to Rome in the 5th Century BC, his integration into the Roman Pantheon transpired through a process known as interpretatio Romana (Darvill 2008). This trend can also be observed in the pairing of Jupiter with Zeus or Mars with Ares. Initially, the interpretatio Romana involved the acceptance of a Greek deity along with its narratives and mythologies, succeeded by associating it with existing Roman gods possessing similar qualities. What renders Apollo’s situation particularly intriguing is the absence of a Roman counterpart; he was adopted along with the Greek traditions that accompanied him. Ultimately, the last phase of interpretatio Romana involved formalizing Apollo’s place within Roman religion. Given that Rome’s origins were deeply intertwined with Greek heritage—particularly through Aeneas stemming from the Trojan War—this final assimilation phase was likely quite seamless.
Praised and venerated, Apollo was recognized as the god of music, prophecy, archery, healing, and the sun by both Greeks and Romans. His beginnings are articulated in the Homeric ‘Hymn to Apollo,’ which shares that Apollo is the offspring of Zeus and Leto. The hymn illustrates that after receiving nectar and ambrosia, baby Apollo matured into adulthood and declared, “The Lyre and curved bow shall ever be dear to me, and I will declare to men the unfailing will of Zeus” (Hymn. Hom. Ap. 131). Accordingly, the lyre and bow became emblematic of Apollo, frequently depicted alongside him in art, sculptures, and even currency.
Cultural Symbolism and Political Power
Romans leveraged mythology to forge connections with their ancestral legacies. The Roman poet Virgil, for instance, constructed Aeneas’ lineage to trace back to Venus, thereby enabling Julius Caesar to claim descent from Venus through Aeneas (Virgil, Aeneid, 1.254). Consequently, Augustus, as Caesar’s adopted son, might have also laid claim to a connection with Venus. However, Augustus had a pronounced affinity for Apollo, often invoking his favor during military endeavors to secure divine protection (Zanker 1990), a theme we will investigate further.
By the era of Augustus, Apollo had transitioned from a minor foreign deity to one of Rome’s preeminent gods. How do we glean this transformation? Sadly, consultations with Apollo are off the table. Instead, we analyze his presence through the effects he left on the city. Apollo was represented in various forms throughout Rome, including temples, statues, and figurines. His two major temples serve as critical markers through which we can trace the evolution of his status in Rome.
The Temple of Apollo Medicus
The inaugural significant temple dedicated to Apollo was actually positioned outside the immediate city limits, in the Campus Martius. This site gained prominence due to a cult statue of Apollo weeping for three consecutive days following the demise of Scipio the Younger (Dio, 22.84.2). It’s noteworthy that a temple built for a deity had to be situated outside the pomerium, Rome’s sacred boundary. At this point in history, Apollo was still regarded as a foreign figure, thereby prohibiting his temple within Rome (Hill 1962: 126). As recorded by Livy (History of Rome 4.25.3), construction initiated in 433 BC amid a plague crisis, which culminated in the temple being dubbed the Temple of Apollo Medicus, highlighting its association with healing.
However, the restoration of the temple is particularly telling. After standing for several centuries, the temple underwent significant refurbishment in 32 BCE by consul C. Sosius during a politically tumultuous period. Sosius began the renovation just before Octavian’s confrontation with Antony, and despite failing to support Octavian, he was later forgiven by Augustus, allowing him to continue his work (Crittenden 2017). This restoration could have signified a revival of Sosius’ standing in Augustus’ eyes, given that Augustus claimed an affinity with Apollo.
The Temple of Apollo Palatinus
For many years, Apollo was perceived as a minor deity, but his status began to shift significantly under Augustus. The emperor sought Apollo’s endorsement throughout military campaigns, attributing his triumphs—such as the victory at Actium, which transpired near an Apollo shrine—to the god’s favor. Following his victory at Naulochus, Augustus vowed to erect a grand temple in honor of Apollo (Hill 1962: 131), which is documented in the Res Gestae (19) and described by Marcus Velleius Paterculus in his Roman History (2.81.3).
The new temple was established on the Palatine Hill, adjacent to Augustus’ residence, located where a lightning strike had occurred, which the haruspices interpreted as a celestial message from Apollo (Suet. Aug. 29.3). As a result, the temple became known as Apollo Palatinus. Its location, near Romulus’ hut, seemed symbolically significant, linking Rome’s second founder to its first (Hill 1962: 131).
The Temple of Apollo Palatinus stands out among Augustus’ architectural endeavors. Propertius praises its monumental design made of Luna marble (Prop. Eleg. 2.31) and mentions decorative features such as the sun chariot of Apollo atop the roof. The grandeur continued inside, where a statue of Apollo, crafted by Scopas, attracted worshippers alongside an image of Diana by Timotheus (Plin. Nat. Hist. 36.4). The temple also became a venue for civic gatherings led by the senate, showcasing its importance throughout centuries.
Despite the temple’s historical significance, contemporary scholarship indicates that its exact architectural design remains largely ambiguous due to poor preservation (Zink 2008: 47). Many only know of it through scattered foundation remnants and previous attempts at reconstruction that have not been widely accepted.
Apollo’s second temple transitioned focus from his role as a god of healing to his prophetic attributes. Augustus’ decision to place the Sibylline books—the oracular texts foundational to Roman prophecy—beneath the statue of Apollo symbolizes this shift. Previously housed in the central Temple of Jupiter, relocating these texts to Apollo’s temple effectively transferred elements of Jupiter’s power to this newfound patron (Hill 1962: 133).
Additionally, Apollo was instrumental in the ludi saeculares celebrations, which marked the conclusion of a century-long period—the longest human lifespan of that time. The Temple of Apollo Palatinus played a central role during these festivities, which continued till the ascension of Christian emperors, thereby ensuring Apollo a place among revered gods like Jupiter, Mars, and Minerva.
This ongoing usage of the temple affirms Augustus’ strategy of legitimizing his authority. The temple not only commemorated his victories but over time stood as an enduring symbol of his semi-divine legacy, while also linking Apollo with Rome’s future. As a result, Apollo emerged as a central figure within the Roman pantheon, maintaining this legacy well beyond the Augustan era.
Numismatic Evidence: Apollo and Augustus’ Shared Legacy
Although Apollo was primarily celebrated through two temples in Rome, his significance extended throughout the empire. Augustus uniquely positioned himself in relation to Apollo, asserting himself as his son and attributing his rise to divine influence (Hill 1962: 129). To propagate this advantageous lineage, he implemented a common political tool: coinage. Coins, while not directly related to Apollo’s temples, serve as vital artifacts that reveal how Romans perceived Apollo as the father of their leading emperor.
Early Roman Republican coins frequently depict a laureate head of Apollo (fig. 6). Numerous examples highlight either the laureate head or images of Apollo in a quadriga, bow and arrow in hand, with a laurel branch—a symbol of triumph deeply rooted in Greek mythology.
Other Republican coins may portray a youthful Apollo donning an oak wreath (RRC 304/1), which became emblematic of Roman identity. The oak wreath is inherently Roman, and while the type of wreath on Apollo’s coin remains uncertain, it may well represent the corona civica (Plin. Nat. Hist. 16.5).
In the Imperial era, coins commonly feature Apollo holding a lyre, a consistent iconography linking him to musical skill (RIC I 170). This lyre motif endured from the republic through to the empire. Later depictions show Apollo standing with other symbols, reinforcing a seamless blend of Greek and Roman identities—a compelling observation of how Apollo was embraced and adapted into Roman culture.
Conclusion
While Apollo only had two temples in Rome, these structures narrate much about his standing within the city. The Temple of Apollo Medicus epitomizes Apollo’s integration and persistent Greek heritage, while the Temple of Apollo Palatinus exemplifies Augustus’ unique relationship with the god. Notably, historical narratives often intertwine mythology with sociopolitical change, and Apollo’s legacy is no exception. Through the lens of Roman culture, we gain insight into the complexities of a Hellenic god assimilated into the Roman narrative, paving the path for further discourse on the integration of other deities into Roman life, such as Cybele or Magna Mater.
