Roman Religion: An Overview
Roman religion, synonymous with Roman mythology, refers to the beliefs and practices held by the inhabitants of the Italian Peninsula from ancient times until Christianity emerged as the dominant faith in the 4th century CE, a period recognized as Classical antiquity. According to Cicero, a prominent Roman orator and politician, the Romans distinguished themselves from other peoples by their keen understanding that everything is governed by divine powers. Unlike many religions rooted in the idea of divine grace, Roman religion was built on the principle of mutual trust, or fides, between individuals and deities.
The fundamental aim of Roman religion was to cultivate the goodwill and favorable “peace” (pax deorum) of the gods. The Romans believed that by securing divine assistance, they could exert control over the mysterious forces around them—forces that inspired both reverence and fear (religio)—allowing them to thrive and succeed in life. Consequently, a system of rules called jus divinum (or “divine law”) emerged, outlining specific actions to undertake or avoid. For a long time, these guidelines did not prioritize ethical considerations but rather focused on the precise execution of rituals.
Emphasizing ceremonial practices, Roman religion fused religious rites with patriotic tradition. Over the centuries, the rituals became excessively detailed and conservative, preserving vestiges of very early beliefs that can still be observed today. This meticulous nature contrasts sharply with Greek religion, where ancient beliefs often became obscured. While the Greeks developed sophisticated and abstract notions of divinity and humanity’s relationship with it, the more structured and somewhat rigid Romans maintained their traditional rituals. Initially, the Romans lacked the Greek propensity to visualize their gods in anthropomorphic forms and weave elaborate myths around them.
As a result, one could argue that true Roman mythology is scant. While archaeological discoveries in areas like Etruria suggest that the Italians engaged in some mythological thinking, the body of Roman mythology remains limited. Much of what exists serves to enhance nationalistic or familial legends through borrowed Greek motifs. Furthermore, Roman religion did not adhere to a formal creed; as long as the proper rituals were performed, individual Romans had the latitude to hold personal beliefs regarding the divine. This absence of a creed often led to a dismissal of emotion during worship practices.
Despite the ancient customs lying beneath the surface, reconstructing the trajectory and development of Roman religion remains a challenging endeavor. Most of the primary literary sources—scholars like Varro and Verrius Flaccus from the 1st century BCE and their contemporaneous poets—documented their observations 700 to 800 years after Rome’s founding. Their works, influenced by Greek methods and mythology, often contain erroneous interpretations of Rome’s early history. To fill gaps in our understanding, scholars consult surviving religious calendars and inscriptions, along with a wealth of artistic materials, coins, and medallions that provide further context.
Early Roman Religious Practices
Archaeological findings from early periods offer some clues, but they do not suffice to fully reconstruct the religion of ancient Rome. Yet, they hint that as early as the first millennium BCE, Latin and Sabine farmers migrated toward the area that would become Rome. From the Alban and Sabine Hills, these early inhabitants established settlements, merging their communities around 620 BCE. By about 575 BCE, the Forum Romanum emerged as a central public space for trade and gatherings.
The synthesis of divine functions in early Roman society illustrated a unique aspect of their spirituality. Like many cultures, they perceived divine force as actively involved in everyday occurrences, from significant life events like childbirth to natural phenomena, such as the sun’s movements. By venerating these regular happenings alongside extraordinary manifestations (for example, a divine voice that provided guidance in a crisis), they developed a deep-seated reverence for functional deities. This resulted in a significant number of deities, each connected to specific aspects of life, reflecting a “religious atomism” that defined their belief system. A precise invocation of names was vital to secure divine favor; understanding the correct name could influence the deity’s willingness to respond. When unsure, it was safest to invoke an “unknown” god or to clarify by adding “or whatever name you choose to be called.”
