This week features a dual episode where Isaac Roberts and Patrick Brewer delve into the significant role of one of the most crucial Hellenic deities in Rome—Apollo. How did a Greek god manage to integrate into Roman traditions? Let’s examine Apollo’s representation in Rome, both in terms of physical structures and conceptual significance.
The concept of deities is particularly captivating in human history; they exist not in the physical realm but in the collective consciousness, with their reverence influenced by both geographical settings and historical contexts. One notable figure in this pantheon is Apollo. Introduced to Rome in the 5th Century BC, Apollo was assimilated into the Roman belief system through a practice known as interpretatio Romana. This process also applies to the relationships between other figures such as Jupiter with Zeus and Mars with Ares. The interpretatio Romana started by adopting the Greek god along with corresponding myths and origin stories, followed by aligning him with existing Roman deities that bore close resemblances. What’s particularly intriguing about Apollo is that he lacked a direct equivalent among Roman gods; he was fully embraced with Greek representations of his character. The culmination of this interpretatio Romana involved integrating Apollo into the Roman pantheon, which was relatively uncomplicated given Rome’s own historical ties to Greece through legends such as Aeneas and the Trojan War.
Apollo was widely revered as the Greek and Roman deity of music, prophecy, medicine, archery, and the sun. His origins are narratively framed in the Homeric ‘Hymn to Apollo’, which recounts that he was born of Zeus and Leto. The poem further depicts the infant god growing to maturity after receiving nectar and ambrosia, vowing, “The Lyre and curved bow shall ever be dear to me, and I will declare to men the unfailing will of Zeus.” As a result, the lyre and the bow became his visual emblems, frequently represented in various forms of art and currency.
In Roman culture, mythology was often employed to establish connections with ancestral lineages. A prime example is found in the works of Virgil, who linked Aeneas to Venus, thereby enabling Julius Caesar to claim descent from the goddess through Aeneas. Consequently, Augustus, Caesar’s adopted heir, also established similar claims to divine lineage, particularly an attachment to Apollo. Throughout his military endeavors, Augustus often invoked Apollo’s favor, believing the god offered protection and guidance.
Throughout the reign of Augustus, Apollo evolved from a lesser-known foreign deity into a key figure in Roman religion. The evidence of this transformation is visible in the many representations of Apollo throughout Rome, ranging from temples to statues and figurines. Two primary temples dedicated to Apollo can be identified within Rome itself, which reflect his increasing importance.
The Temple of Apollo Medicus
The first significant temple dedicated to Apollo was situated outside the sacred boundaries of the city in the Campus Martius. This temple reportedly originated from a cult statue that wept for three days after the demise of Scipio the Younger. At this time, Apollo was still regarded as a foreign god, hence the necessity for the temple’s off-city location. According to Livy, its construction commenced in 433 BC following a plague, leading to its designation as the Temple of Apollo Medicus, or “the healer.”
Notably, the continued restoration of this temple is particularly captivating. Although it endured for centuries, its deterioration prompted a significant restoration led by consul C. Sosius in 32 BCE. This undertaking coincided with the power struggles between Octavian and Antony. Interestingly, Augustus showed clemency towards Sosius after Antony’s defeat, possibly viewing the temple’s restoration as a means to cement Sosius’s loyalty.
Despite the minimal remnants of the temple today, various fragments have been salvaged, unveiling essential architectural details acquired through ancient accounts, notably from Pliny the Elder. The artistry that adorned this temple embraced a strongly Greek influence, thereby affirming Apollo’s foreign origins.
The Temple of Apollo Palatinus
Apollo remained an underappreciated deity until Augustus redefined his status. Augustus attributed his successes in battle to Apollo, particularly mentioning victories such as those at Actium and Naulochus. Following these achievements, he publicly pledged to build a temple honoring Apollo, an act documented in both the Res Gestae and the writings of Marcus Velleius Paterculus.
This second temple, known as Apollo Palatinus, was constructed on the Palatine Hill, a location directly linked to Augustus’s residence. This site was deemed significant due to an auspicious lightning strike, interpreted as a sign from Apollo. The temple is celebrated as one of Augustus’s chief architectural endeavors, famed for its luxurious materials and design, as noted by the poet Propertius and others. Unfortunately, much of the architectural detail has been lost, with current remnants being mainly foundational. Thus, the structure’s precise layout is a subject of scholarly debate.
Apollo’s initial temple prioritized his connection to medicine; conversely, the second temple focused on his prophetic abilities. This shift is exemplified by the relocation of the Sibylline books to Apollo Palatinus, signifying a transfer of authority once held by Jupiter. This relocation firmly linked Augustus to Apollo, enhancing the latter’s prominence in public consciousness.
Furthermore, the involvement of the temple in the secular games, a vital event in Roman religious life, further affirmatively positioned Apollo alongside other principal deities like Jupiter and Mars. The continued utilization of the temple helped legitimize Augustus’s reign and offer a symbolic reminder of his victories.
Numismatic Evidence: Apollo & Augustus – A Connection
Although Apollo had only two principal temples in Rome, his influence extended significantly across the empire. Augustus was not the first Roman leader to align with a deity, but his identification with Apollo was notably distinct. Augustus believed that his rise to power was divinely sponsored by Apollo, claiming to be the god’s progeny. This belief was propagated through coinage, a powerful medium for political messaging in Ancient Rome.
Coins from the Republican era often featured Apollo, particularly alongside symbols like laurel wreaths denoting victory. This symbolism highlighted Apollo’s representation as a cultural icon tied closely to notions of honor and achievement. The continuance of Apollo’s image on coins during the Empire showed a consistent public association of the god with imperial authority and significant events.
Interestingly, even later numismatic evidence depicts Apollo in various forms—standing with a lyre, holding a raven, and surrounded by notable flora, demonstrating the interconnectedness of Greek and Roman tradition in presenting Apollo.
Apollo & Rome: A Unique Legacy
Unlike many other deities who enjoyed extensive temples and mass worship, Apollo’s two temples uniquely reflect his journey within Roman society. The Temple of Apollo Medicus emphasized his Greek roots, while the Temple of Apollo Palatinus marked a transformative connection to Augustus and state power. The legacy of Apollo in Rome underscores the profound relationship between mythology and the socio-political landscape of the time, sparking ongoing discussions about the integration of Hellenic deities into Roman life.
