One of the most celebrated figures in literary history appears in the renowned Chinese classic Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592 CE). This epic recounts the escapades of Sun Wukong (孫悟空), also known as “Monkey,” an immortal simian with extraordinary abilities obtained through spiritual practice, who challenges the authority of heaven. Similar to figures such as Loki in Norse lore and Lucifer in Judeo-Christian tales, this trickster deity faces a fall from grace when he is cast out by a supreme entity, in this instance the Buddha, and imprisoned on earth. Unlike his Western counterparts, however, the monkey ultimately atones for his misdeeds, becoming a monk devoted to aiding a Buddhist priest on a pilgrimage to gather sacred texts from India.
The following recounts Monkey’s narrative, focusing primarily on the initial seven chapters out of the novel’s total of one hundred, with brief references to chapters eight through one hundred, as well as to various lesser-known literary continuations of Journey to the West. Additionally, the cultural repercussions of this classic tale on both popular culture and religious beliefs will be explored.
Overview of the Story
The saga begins as the mystical forces of the cosmos entwine with the sunlight and moonlight, culminating in the impregnation of a stone atop the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit (Huaguo shan, 花果山), an isle situated to the east of the Buddhist conceptual universe. After enduring eons, the stone eventually gives birth to a simian figure through the erosion of a stone egg during the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE). The Stone Monkey (Shihou, 石猴) awakens and bows towards the cardinal directions while emitting a light so radiant that it alarms the Jade Emperor (Yuhuang dadi, 玉皇大帝) and his celestial entourage. This brilliance, however, diminishes once he eats for the first time.
Upon encountering other monkeys residing on the island, he triumphantly becomes their king after demonstrating bravery by leaping through a waterfall and discovering an ancient immortal’s cave. For over three hundred years, he rules until the prospect of mortality invades his thoughts. Prompted by an advisor, the king embarks on a quest for eternal life, sailing off on a makeshift raft for a decade of exploration. His journey leads him to the western continent, where he ultimately becomes a disciple of the Buddho-Daoist sage Subodhi (Xuputi, 须菩提), receiving the name Sun Wukong, which translates to “monkey awakened to emptiness” or “monkey who realizes sunyata.” The sage imparts to him the 72 methods of transformation—skills to alter his size and shape, a miraculous form of flight allowing him to traverse vast distances in a single bound, and various magical spells for summoning deities, manipulating nature, and gaining unimaginable strength.
Following a period of triumph, Sun returns to confront a demon that had wreaked havoc during his absence. Realizing he requires a suitable weapon to match his newfound strength, he consults his advisor, who suggests visiting the undersea palace of Ao Guang (敖廣), the Dragon King of the Eastern Sea. After testing various weapons, all too light, he finally selects a colossal nine-ton iron pillar used historically to quell the ancient world flood, aptly named the “As-You-Will Gold-Banded Cudgel” (Ruyi jingu bang, 如意金箍棒) for its ability to respond to Sun’s command, allowing it to alter its size according to his wishes. In addition, he compels the Dragon King’s brothers to gift him with magical armor.
Upon returning to his kingdom, Sun showcases his weaponry, occasionally transforming into a gigantic cosmic figure. This display attracts various demon kings, who pledge allegiance to him after he holds a boisterous celebration in his honor. However, following a drunken stupor, Sun is visited by psychopomps who transport his essence to the Chinese underworld, Diyu (地獄). There, it is revealed that he is destined to die at the age of 342, inciting his fury over losing his status of immortality. He menaces the underworld gods into retrieving his ledger and crosses out his name—along with every monkey’s name on earth—thereby granting them all immortality. His soul subsequently reintegrates into his body, awakening him in the mortal realm.
The actions of both the Eastern Dragon King and Hell King Qinguang (秦廣王) spark official complaints regarding Sun’s behavior. However, the planet Venus personified persuades the Jade Emperor to assign Sun a lowly position caring for the Heavenly Horses to mitigate any potential disturbance. Sun, realizing he is merely a stable hand, retaliates by proclaiming himself as the “Great Sage Equaling Heaven” (Qitian dasheng, 齊天大聖). The celestial kingdom answers his audacious challenge by sending formidable demon hunters, including Heavenly King Li Jing (李靖天王) and his son, the child deity Third Prince Nezha (哪吒三太子), only to be vanquished by Monkey’s martial prowess.
Consequently, the embodiment of Venus once more intercedes, persuading the Jade Emperor to concede to Sun’s demands, granting him the empty title of “Great Sage Equaling Heaven” while assigning him to oversee the immortal peach orchards. However, his desire for the magical peaches, which provide longevity, proves irresistible as he consumes most of them, ultimately earning an additional level of immortality. When the fairy attendants of the Queen Mother of the West (西王母) arrive to collect the peaches for an imminent banquet, discovering Sun’s ripened feast enrages him. He immobilizes the attendants with magic, crashes the feast, and consumes both the fruit and the divine wine, before unwittingly consuming alchemical elixir pills from Daoist deity Laozi (老子), thereby further augmenting his immortality.
Once more, he waits for the celestial backlash. The Jade Emperor, frustrated by Sun’s exploits, summons an army of 72 heavenly generals, containing powerful being from Buddhist and Daoist beliefs, along with 100,000 celestial soldiers. In retaliation, Sun assembles his forces comprising demon kings and animal spirits. The subsequent battle sees Sun transforming into three heads and six arms while replicating his iron staff to counter a multitude of attacks. Nevertheless, when his offspring are ensnared, he flees confronting the magical might of Erlang (二郎神), the Jade Emperor’s nephew. Their struggle manifests through a flurry of animal transformations, ultimately leading to Sun’s arrest via a magical steel bracelet dropped upon him by Laozi.
Though condemned to death in heaven, Sun’s exceptional body withstands all forms of conventional punishment. Laozi proposes placing him in an alchemical furnace to finish him off. Yet upon inspection, he emerges unscathed, having harnessed wisped protection in the wind element of the eight trigrams, gaining the power to uncover the dark essences of disguised demons. The havoc he wreaks compels the Jade Emperor to seek assistance from the Buddha (如来) in the Western Paradise. The Buddha wagers he can make Sun the sovereign of heaven if the monkey can leap from his palm. Monkey gleefully agrees, only to be outmaneuvered, as the pillars he believed to be the cosmic edge turn out to be Buddha’s fingers. In his fury, the Buddha sends him plummeting outside the heavenly gates, transforming him into the mountain of Five Elements (五行山), where he remains imprisoned.
Chapters thirteen through one hundred depict Sun’s liberation six hundred years later during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), where he aids the Buddhist monk Tripitaka (三藏), a reincarnation of a prior disciple of the Buddha, on a quest to recover sacred texts from India. The Bodhisattva Guanyin (觀音) endows the monk with a golden headband that tightens around Sun’s forehead whenever a spell is recited, inflicting excruciating pain. Additionally, she bestows upon him three magical hairs, which can transform into any desired protective figure. Alongside other seemingly transformed disciples—such as Zhu Bajie (猪八戒), the lustful pig demon, Sha Wujing (沙悟净), the taciturn water monster, and the White Dragon Horse (白龍馬)—each unites to protect the monk. Throughout this dangerous journey, Monkey confronts ghosts, monsters, and gods alike. Ultimately, for his dedication to safeguarding Tripitaka, he ascends to Buddhahood and earns the title “Victorious Fighting Buddha” (鬥戰勝佛).
Literary Continuations
Four unofficial sequels to the original work exist. The first, A Supplement to the Journey to the West (Xiyoubu, 西游补, 1640), is set between chapters 61 and 62 and presents Monkey in numerous escapades through a magic tower and a Jade doorway navigating time. His encounters vary from disguising as a consort during the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE) to serving as a judge of Hell in the Song Dynasty (960–1279), eventually uncovering troubling dangers surrounding Tripitaka.
The second sequel, Later Journey to the West (Hou Xiyouji, 後西遊記, 17th-century), chronicles the adventures of Sun Luzhen (孫履真), a spiritual successor to Monkey. The remaining sequels are Continuation of the Journey to the West (Xu Xiyouji, 續西遊記, 17th-century) and New Journey to the West (Xin Xiyouji, 新西遊記, 19th-century), which have not yet been extensively examined.
Cultural Influence
For centuries, stories of Sun Wukong have captivated audiences globally. Initially gaining traction through oral performances during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), these tales paved the way for the novel The Story of How Tripitaka of the Great Tang Procures the Scriptures (大唐三藏取經詩話) in the late 13th century. Following the complete publication of the novel in the 16th century, Monkey’s narrative permeated numerous art forms, spanning paintings, poetry, theater, video games, and films.
Notably, some individuals continue to venerate him as a patron deity in southern China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Over time, the Monkey’s prominence has transcended literature, cementing a place in cultural reverence among families.
Additionally, some versions of the story have found their way to Japan, as evidenced by mentions in 17th-century catalogs, with the oldest known copies potentially arriving centuries ago. The comprehensive Ming edition reached Japan in the late 18th century and underwent a fragmented translation that went on for about seventy years. However, it was not until the first complete translation in 1835 that Monkey achieved widespread acclaim in Japan. The work was illustrated using woodblocks by Taito II, a notable student of the famed artist Hokusai.
Further, numerous Japanese artists, including Kubo Shunman and Yoshitoshi, produced stunning woodblock prints featuring the Monkey King. His influence permeates Japanese pop culture, with arguably the most famous adaptation being Son Goku from the Dragon Ball (七龍珠) franchise. Much like Sun, Goku possesses a monkey tail, is skilled in martial arts, wields a magical staff, and rides a cloud. His adventures involve seeking seven wish-granting “dragon balls” while honing his combat skills, with various characters echoing Zhang’s legacy, including Oolong, a shape-shifting pig reflecting Zhu Bajie.
In summary, despite his enigmatic origins, Sun Wukong continues to be a figure of immense cultural significance, his story evolving while resonating across generations and geographies.
