Roman religion refers to the beliefs and practices observed by the inhabitants of the Italian Peninsula from ancient times until Christianity’s rise in the 4th century CE, a period known as Classical antiquity. Cicero, a prominent Roman orator and politician, suggested that Romans distinguished themselves through a unique understanding that all things are ultimately subject to divine authority. Central to Roman religion was not divine favor but the mutual trust (fides) established between humans and gods. The purpose was to ensure divine cooperation and goodwill (pax deorum), which Romans believed would help them navigate the world’s unpredictable forces (religio), allowing them to thrive.
Over centuries, Roman rituals were documented into a series of guidelines classified as jus divinum (“divine law”), focusing predominantly on the correct execution of rituals rather than moral directives. The emphasis was almost entirely on ceremonial acts, which carried the weight of patriotic tradition. Roman ceremonial practices were so precise and conservative that remnants of early thought emerged fairly intact, unlike their Greek counterparts, whose early beliefs were often layered and obscured. The Greeks, having developed sophisticated and sometimes avant-garde interpretations of divinity, approached their gods with more abstract concepts. In contrast, Romans maintained traditional rituals, lacking a personalized mythological lens until influenced by Greek culture.
While Etruscan archaeological findings indicate some mythological traditions existed, Roman mythology is notably sparse and can be predominantly seen as a pseudomythology. Romans often dressed their national tales in borrowed Greek mythology for embellishment. There was no formal creed within Roman religion; as long as rituals were performed correctly, individuals could hold their personal beliefs about the gods while often dismissing emotion in worship. Despite this absence of a formal doctrine, understanding the evolution of Roman religious practices remains challenging. The main literary accounts come from antiquarians like Varro and Verrius Flaccus, who wrote centuries later, significantly influenced by Greek culture, leading to misinterpretations of early Roman practices.
Early Roman Religion
Archaeological records provide some insight into early Roman beliefs, although they do not fully allow for the reconstruction of archaic Roman religion. Evidence suggests that around the early 1st millennium BCE, Latin and Sabine groups from nearby hills established the early settlements in Rome. The merging of these communities, approximately in 620 BCE, and the establishment of the Forum Romanum as their meeting place around 575 BCE marked significant milestones in their social development.
In those early times, Romans, similar to other Italian peoples, personified divine power as it manifested in both human activities and natural phenomena. They often worshipped deities corresponding to specific functions or events, such as childbirth or the movement of celestial bodies. This “religious atomism” led to an extensive array of functional deities, each with well-defined roles. Knowing the correct names and titles for these deities was of utmost importance, as proper invocation was believed to ensure their attention and assistance. When in doubt, it was common to refer to an “unknown” god or to add phrases acknowledging the deity’s preferred name.
