In this work, Goldsworthy aims to explore why certain Roman generals achieved remarkable success and what insights can be gleaned from their experiences. He examines a variety of commanders, spanning from the Punic Wars in the 3rd century BCE, critical to Rome’s continuity and future direction, to Belisarius, the last eminent general who endeavored to reclaim the western territories of the Empire in the 6th century CE. Each chapter delivers an in-depth exploration of individual generals’ lives, narrated within the broader historical context, comparing them to their contemporaries and analyzing their adaptability to prevailing situations.
For instance, to combat the formidable Hannibal, Fabius Maximus initiated a strategy centered on evasion and prolonged engagements, allowing Rome time to recover from previous devastating defeats. This strategy was based on Hannibal’s incorrect belief that Rome would eventually seek peace and negotiate. Despite being viewed as cowardly for his tactics, Fabius’ approach enabled others, like Marcellus and Scipio Africanus, to adopt more aggressive military strategies. In stark contrast, Julius Caesar fought primarily for personal elevation, becoming one of history’s most recognized Roman figures. The book offers enlightening character studies and leadership analyses, distinguishing it from Goldsworthy’s previous work, Roman Warfare, which focused on technical aspects without individual storytelling.
Goldsworthy effectively summarizes Rome’s history, illustrating its ascent to Mediterranean dominance beginning with the Carthaginian threat—a competing trading empire along the African coast. Initially, Rome’s military forces comprised land-owning farmers, who were mostly amateurs constrained by agricultural obligations. After achieving victory, Rome transitioned towards expansive territorial ambitions, leading to the establishment of a more permanent military comprised of volunteers from impoverished sections of society and practiced commanders from the aristocracy. Over time, the Empire reached a stage of relative stability necessitating an army composed of diverse ethnic groups, including mercenaries. The assimilation of conquered territories allowed local nobles to engage as active participants, thereby securing their allegiance and broadening the talent pool available to Rome.
Goldsworthy articulates the intricate political landscape, detailing how generals, largely drawn from the aristocracy, were inherently positioned within the ruling class. In the Republic’s era, military success was integral to gaining political power, as one had to achieve victories to attain a favorable position in the hierarchy, known as the cursus honorum. However, esteemed generals eventually became viewed as potential usurpers or dictators by jealous senators. Notable figures like Scipio ultimately faded into obscurity despite their remarkable careers, exacerbating the political instability when competent leaders like Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus were led to assume temporary dictatorial powers during crises.
As armies evolved into professional forces, the loyalty of soldiers began skewing more towards individual generals than the Republic, which struggled to support retired military men. Julius Caesar’s conflict with Pompey and the Boni marked the end of the tradition of dignified retirement among generals, following in the footsteps of others like Caius Marius and Sulla who engaged in civil strife. The demise of the Republic in 44 BCE manifested constant tensions between emperors and their generals; the former relied on them for effective military campaigns while simultaneously fearing their potential to grab power.
With generals often emerging from the revamped Senate, political intrigue remained rampant, necessitating ongoing vigilance. Many generals seized power through the support of their troops or their own aspirations (exemplified by figures like Constantine), particularly in an Empire so vast that opportunities for action arose far from Rome’s center, leading to episodes of instability that drained resources needed for defense and maintenance across territories, contributing to a prolonged decline.
While military tactics and strategies are not the primary focus of this work, Goldsworthy does delve into various military engagements, including attrition campaigns (as seen in Gaul), smaller skirmishes culminating in peace negotiations (like those with Parthia), and sieges (such as Jerusalem). The restrictions imposed by the era—such as slow communication and reliance on muscle-powered weaponry—highlight compelling contrasts to modern warfare dynamics, which are also discussed in the concluding chapter emphasizing classical studies’ relevance to contemporary military practices.
Goldsworthy concludes that while each successful general had a distinct command style and confronted unique challenges, they shared essential attributes: ensuring their troops were well-equipped and trained, balancing engagement risks with command authority, and possessing an intuition about when to engage. Popularity among soldiers varied, with many generals enduring skepticism and neglect from the political sphere, revealing how fleeting fame and glory could be.
This is an absorbing narrative crafted by a distinguished historian, and Goldsworthy sets a high bar for popular historical accounts of Rome.
