Roman religion, also referred to as Roman mythology, encompasses the beliefs and customs of the inhabitants of the Italian peninsula dating from ancient times until the rise of Christianity in the 4th century CE, a period often identified as Classical antiquity.
Nature and Importance
According to Cicero, a renowned orator and politician, the Romans distinguished themselves through their unique understanding that everything is under the influence and governance of the gods. Roman religion, focused not on divine grace, but rather on a mutual bond of trust (fides) between deities and mortals, aimed to attain the cooperation, goodwill, and “peace” of the gods, known as pax deorum. This divine support was believed to equip the Romans with the ability to navigate the myriad unknown forces, which often evoked fear and reverence (religio) in their lives, enabling them to achieve success.
As a result, a set of regulations, termed jus divinum (“divine law”), was instituted, outlining necessary actions and prohibitions. For centuries, these guidelines possessed little moral content, primarily instructing the proper execution of rituals. The emphasis of Roman religion rested heavily on cult practices that were regarded with the sanctity of national heritage. Roman ceremonies were characterized by a meticulous and conservative nature, allowing glimpses into ancient thoughts that might still linger beneath the surface, unlike Greek religion, where such remnants are often obscured.
Unlike the Greeks, who had progressed toward more abstract and innovative interpretations of deities and their interactions with humanity, the Romans maintained their traditional practices. It wasn’t until later that Greek influence, characterized by a vivid and imaginative portrayal of gods in a humanized form, made an impact on Roman conceptualizations. In reality, there is scant Roman mythology; findings from the 20th century, especially in Etruria (in the region between the Tiber and Arno rivers), verify that while Italians were not devoid of mythological lore, it remains minimal. What can be identified in Rome is largely a pseudomythology—nationalistic or familial legends wrapped in borrowed Greek myth.
Furthermore, Roman religion lacked a formal creed; Romans could hold personal interpretations regarding the deities as long as they engaged in the correct religious rites. Emotion was often considered inappropriate during worship, emphasizing the procedural over the personal. Despite ancient traditions bubbling beneath the surface, piecing together the complete evolution and history of Roman religion remains a challenge.
Early Roman Religion
Evidence from archaeological findings provides insights into early Roman religion but does not offer a comprehensive reconstruction of its early forms. However, it indicates that during the 1st millennium BCE, potentially around the legend of Rome’s founding in 753 BCE, Latin and Sabine shepherds and farmers likely settled in the area, establishing villages at Rome, particularly on Palatine Hill and possibly Quirinal and Esquiline hills.
By around 620 BCE, these communities merged, leading to the development of the Forum Romanum, which became the central hub for civic life and commerce.
Deification of Functions
The early Romans exhibited a pattern of recognizing divine powers in various functional aspects of life, such as significant human endeavors (e.g., childbirth or the opening of doors) and natural phenomena (e.g., the movements of the sun and seasonal changes). This reverence extended to both recurring events impacting daily life and unique occurrences, like the mysterious voice, Aius Locutius, that offered crucial guidance in times of need.
The Romans identified a multitude of functional deities, showcasing a form of “religious atomism” where numerous powers were linked to specific life phases. Each deity’s function was rigorously defined, indicating that the correct identification and titles were essential for worship. Knowing a deity’s name was seen as a requisite for gaining their attention in prayer.
In the absence of certainty regarding a deity’s name, it was wise to either acknowledge their status as “unknown” or add cautionary phrases like “or whatever name you choose to be called” or “if a god or goddess be present.”
