Roman religion, also referred to as Roman mythology, encompasses the beliefs and rituals observed by the inhabitants of ancient Italy from the early days until the rise of Christianity in the 4th century CE. This era is categorized as Classical antiquity.
Nature and Importance
According to Cicero, a notable orator and politician, the Romans possessed a unique wisdom that helped them understand their subordinate relationship to the gods’ authority. Unlike other religions rooted in divine grace, Roman religion centered on a reciprocal trust (fides) between the divine and humanity. The aim of their practices was to achieve the favor and peace (pax deorum) of the gods, which the Romans believed would enable them to control the unpredictable forces that evoked both wonder and fear (religio), allowing them to thrive.
To achieve this, Romans developed a set of guidelines known as jus divinum, which designated behavioral norms in both ritual performance and avoidance. For centuries, these rules were largely devoid of moral implications, serving mainly as instructions for ritual practices. The focus of Roman worship was predominantly on these ceremonial acts, regarded with the same reverence as national traditions.
Roman ceremonies were characterized by extreme precision and a conservative approach, suggesting that amidst later modifications, one can uncover traces of rudimentary thoughts about divinity. This stands in contrast to Greek religion, where such traces often lie obscured. The Greeks had embarked on a journey of complex and imaginative reflections on divinity long before the Romans began documenting their beliefs.
The Romans did not initially share the Greeks’ penchant for personifying their gods or crafting rich narratives around them. Thus, Roman mythology is notably scarce. While 20th-century archaeological discoveries in regions like Etruria reveal some mythological elements among early Italians, much of what constitutes Roman mythology is essentially a borrowed framework structured around Greek legends that reflect their burgeoning national identity.
Roman religious practice lacked a formal creed, allowing individuals the freedom to contemplate the nature of the gods as they pleased, so long as they performed the required rituals correctly. This absence of a shared belief system often led to a perception that emotions were inappropriate during worship.
Despite the presence of ancient elements in Roman religious practices, piecing together its historical evolution proves challenging. Key literary sources from the early Roman scholars Varro and Verrius Flaccus offer insights, but they were written centuries after the establishment of Rome, at a time when Greek cultural influences led to distorted interpretations of Rome’s early past. To build a more complete understanding, scholars reference religious calendars and various inscriptions, alongside a wealth of information found in ancient coins, medallions, and artistic works.
Early Roman Religion
Archaeological finds provide a glimpse into the origins of Roman religious practice, albeit not sufficient to reconstruct it entirely. Evidence suggests that by the 1st millennium BCE, Latin and Sabine peoples migrated from the Alban and Sabine hills, setting up early communities on the Palatine and possibly the Quirinal and Esquiline hills. The merger of these communities around 620 BCE culminated in the establishment of the Forum Romanum as a central hub by approximately 575 BCE.
Deification of Functions
In studying early Romans, one finds that, similar to many Italic peoples, they perceived divine forces in both human activities and natural occurrences. Early Romans showed reverence to various forces, such as those related to childbirth or agricultural cycles, reflecting an impressive array of deities related to everyday functions. These deities were often named meticulously, as naming them correctly was considered crucial for communication. If their specific name was unknown, it was common practice to invoke an “unknown” deity or request assistance in broad terms, ensuring that all potential divine aid was recognized.
