Roman Religion: Beliefs and Practices from Classical Antiquity
Roman religion, also referred to as Roman mythology, encompasses the beliefs and customs practiced by the people of the Italian peninsula from ancient times until the rise of Christianity in the 4th century CE, within a timeframe known as Classical antiquity. The Romans, particularly articulated by the orator and statesman Cicero, were noted for their unique insight that everything fell under the authority and guidance of the gods. Unlike other cultures, Roman religion was not fundamentally predicated on divine grace but rather on a mutual trust (known as fides) between deity and devotee.
The primary goal of Roman religious practices was to secure the cooperation, goodwill, and “peace” (pax deorum) of the gods. Romans believed that divine assistance was crucial in mastering the enigmatic forces that often inspired feelings of awe and anxiety (referred to as religio), thereby enabling them to lead successful lives. This belief system fostered a framework of rules, known as jus divinum (divine law), dictating actions to be taken or avoided. Initially, these guidelines emphasized ritualistic correctness over moral implications, reflecting a strong focus on ceremonial acts which had acquired a level of sanctity akin to national pride.
The meticulous and conservative nature of Roman rituals sets them apart from the Greeks, whose early religious concepts often integrated abstract and imaginative depictions of the divine. In stark contrast, the Romans continued to adhere to age-old practices and initially lacked the Greek inclination to humanize their gods or elaborate them through myth. As a result, the concept of Roman mythology is scarce, with archaeological discoveries in regions like Etruria demonstrating limited mythological elements. Much of what exists in Roman tradition can be seen as a borrowed framework of Greek mythology, infused with nationalistic or familial narratives.
While there was no formalized dogma within Roman religion, it was sufficient for individuals to perform the requisite religious rites, allowing for personal belief about the deities. Consequently, emotions were often discouraged in the context of worship. Reconstructing the historical evolution of Roman religion proves challenging, largely due to the reliance on literary sources, including antiquarians like Varro and Verrius Flaccus, who documented practices 700 to 800 years after Rome’s inception. Their writings, influenced by Greek methodologies, sometimes presented romanticized interpretations of Roman history.
Little archaeological evidence concerning early Roman religion exists, yet findings suggest that as early as the 1st millennium BCE, Latin and Sabine farmers and shepherds from the Alban and Sabine Hills settled in the area of what would become Rome, establishing communities on various hills including the Palatine, Quirinal, and Esquiline. By approximately 620 BCE, these communities merged, leading to the formation of the Forum Romanum, the locale for communal gatherings and trade by around 575 BCE.
Early Romans, similar to other Italians, perceived divine forces manifesting through functional acts both in human activities—such as childbirth and door opening—and natural phenomena like celestial movements and agricultural seasons. They directed their reverence towards occurrences that had regular impacts on daily life, as well as towards unique, extraordinary events, such as a prophetic voice that reportedly guided them during crises (Aius Locutius). This resulted in a proliferation of deities associated with distinct functions, leading to a form of “religious atomism” in which myriad forces were tied to specific life experiences. Knowledge of a deity’s true name was deemed crucial for invoking their presence; if the name was unknown, supplicants would often refer to the entity as “unknown” or include precautionary phrases like “or whatever name you wish to be called” to cover all bases.
