Roman religion, also recognized as Roman mythology, refers to the spiritual beliefs and practices of the peoples of the Italian peninsula from ancient times until Christianity gained prominence in the 4th century CE, a historical phase termed Classical antiquity.
Nature and Significance
According to Cicero, an acclaimed Roman orator and politician, the Romans stood out due to their profound wisdom, which enabled them to understand that all aspects of existence were under the guidance and authority of the divine. Roman religion emphasized trust (fides) between humanity and the gods rather than relying on divine grace. Its primary goal was to attract the benevolence and cooperation of the gods, termed “pax deorum,” believing that their divine support would empower individuals to master the various awe-inspiring and fear-inducing forces surrounding them (religio), facilitating a successful life.
Over time, a set of guidelines emerged known as the jus divinum, or “divine law,” dictating the necessary rituals and prohibitions. For centuries, these rules lacked a moral dimension, focusing solely on precise ritual execution. The Roman approach to religion placed a great deal of importance on ceremonial practices, treating them with the same reverence as patriotic traditions. Roman rites were characterized by their meticulousness and adherence to tradition, making it possible to unearth remnants of early beliefs amidst years of accumulating practices—traits that sharply contrast with Greek religion, where such early notions are often obscured.
While the Greeks showcased sophisticated and imaginative interpretations of divinity, Romans tended to adhere to their more simplistic and legalistic rituals. They lacked an inclination toward personalizing their gods or situating them within an expansive mythical framework until influenced by Greek culture. In effect, Roman mythology is largely absent, with the findings in Etruria hinting at a minimal mythological narrative. Most of what is considered Roman mythology consists of borrowed tales adapted to fit nationalistic or familial themes instead of unique mythic traditions. Unlike other cultures that adopted a credal basis for their religions, Roman belief systems did not require a structured doctrine—as long as rituals were performed correctly, individuals were free to hold their personal notions about the divine, often viewing emotional expression as inappropriate during worship.
Despite the ancient components evident within Roman religious practices, the reconstruction of its history and evolution remains a complex endeavor. The key literary sources come from antiquarians like Roman scholars Varro and Verrius Flaccus, who documented aspects of Roman religion several centuries after its inception, during a time awash with Greek influences that skewed earlier interpretations. To obtain a clearer picture, scholars reference remnants of religious calendars and inscriptions while also delving into the invaluable but often cryptic information found in coins, medallions, and artistic representations.
Early Roman Religion
Archaeological discoveries shed light on the early stages of Roman religion, revealing insufficient data to recreate archaic practices but suggesting a formation of communities in the 1st millennium BCE. Notably, the merging of Latin and Sabine communities around 620 BCE laid the groundwork for a sustained civilization, with the Forum Romanum serving as a central meeting place.
Deification of Functions
There is evidence that early Romans, much like their neighboring kin, recognized divine forces within ordinary human actions and natural phenomena, such as childbirth and the movements of celestial bodies, directing reverence toward these recurring occurrences as well as singular, impactful events. This led to the unprecedented proliferation of functional deities, a practice characterized by “religious atomism,” whereby numerous forces were intimately connected to various life aspects. Each deity had a distinct function, requiring precise invocation via their correct names to secure their attention. In instances of uncertainty regarding a deity’s identity, it was customary to acknowledge the possibility of an “unknown” deity or to invoke them by using varied titles to encompass all contingencies.
