The cultural heritage of the Roman Republic was significantly shaped by its Greek neighbors, particularly through their long-standing presence on the island of Sicily. From the 2nd to the 3rd centuries BCE, the influx of Greek culture, including art, literature, philosophy, and notably religion, transformed Roman society. Prior to this Hellenic influence, Romans had already developed a sophisticated religious framework. The arrival of Greek gods led to a convergence of the existing pantheon, except for one deity who stood apart — Janus. His name was often invoked before that of Jupiter, highlighting his unique significance to the Romans.
Rituals held a crucial role in Roman religious practices, markedly different from the Greek approach. Romans emphasized performing rituals correctly to avoid potential repercussions; success brought rewards, while failure could result in punishment. This ritualistic nature persisted even after the integration of Greek deities.
As the god of transitions and dualities, Janus presided over every threshold, embodying the essence of beginnings and endings.
Roman Religious Framework
Before the emergence of the Capitoline triad, Roman spirituality centered around household worship, where various spirits known as numina were believed to inhabit the world around them. Key domestic deities included Vesta, the guardian of the hearth, Penates, protectors of the pantry, Lar Familiaris, the spirit of farmland and family wealth, along with Janus, the god of doorways. Though typically benevolent, these spirits required acknowledgment; neglecting them could invoke their wrath. Homes often featured a small shrine containing divine images, with food offerings made in their honor. Over time, many of these household entities evolved into state deities.
Myths and Attributes of Janus
Janus ranks among the earliest Roman gods and is sometimes referred to as the “god of gods.” Some traditions link him to the Etruscan deity Culsans. Two main myths detail his origins, suggesting that unlike many other deities, Janus may have once walked the earth. In one story, he ruled alongside a king named Camesus and came to Rome with his wife, Camise, and their children, notably Tiberinus, the river god. After constructing a city called Janiculum, Janus ruled over Latium until after Camesus’s death. In another myth, Janus played a pivotal role during the era of Romulus by defending Rome against attackers, and his achievements were commemorated by leaving the doors of his temple open during wartime. Consequently, Romulus is credited with establishing Janus’s cult.
Janus, seen as a protector of all transitions, was characterized by his dual visage—Janus bifrons—symbolizing his gaze in both directions. His persona encompassed a gatekeeper, equipped with symbols like a staff (virga) and keys. His name held precedence over Jupiter in prayers, marking his role in starting important endeavors. January, named for him, signifies the new year, a time for new beginnings. Early currencies depicted him with two faces, reflecting past and future insights, which later evolved during the Renaissance into a symbol of wisdom.
Janus’ Shrines and Rituals
Throughout Rome, five temples dedicated to Janus Geminus were strategically placed near bodies of water, resonating with his associations. The prominent shrine near the Argiletum entrance to the Forum featured bronze doors, which were traditionally shut during times of peace and opened during conflict. Given Rome’s constant state of war, these doors often remained ajar. The manner in which soldiers departed also bore significance; rituals had to be followed to secure Janus’ protection, lest they risk defeat on the battlefield.
In January 48 BCE, under Julius Caesar’s leadership, the Senate sanctioned a rite marking the closing of the shrine’s doors, symbolizing a newfound peace in the Republic thanks to Caesar’s military success. Subsequent emperors continued this tradition; Augustus, keen to revive traditional practices, restored many religious sites. During a campaign in Spain in 26 BCE, troops honored Janus’s rites during their departure and ceremonially closed the doors upon their victorious return after seven years.
Despite the overwhelming Hellenic influence on Roman culture—shaping its artistic expressions, identity, and religious beliefs—it’s easy to overlook the pre-existing Roman spirituality. Though Roman gods adopted some Greek attributes, embodying human-like characteristics of emotion and imperfection, one deity remained untouched by this transformation—Janus, the eternal representation of beginnings and endings, distinctively Roman in essence.
