Who Was Bellona? A Study on the Roman Goddess of War
Before the ascendance of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the mid-4th century, Roman religion was characterized by polytheism, where numerous deities were venerated, marked by a calendar filled with festivals and sacrifices throughout the year. The hierarchy among the gods was crucial, with more significant deities like Jupiter—regarded as the “Best and Greatest”—being celebrated through state-sanctioned festivals known as Feriae. These were large community events, organized and overseen by the Senate, financed with public funds, and given a specific place in the Roman calendar.
Less renowned gods, however, did not enjoy such public recognition. They were honored through private observances by families or individuals, but occasionally wealthy patrons would sponsor sizable public displays to exhibit their devotion. Roman religious practices were notably inclusive; capturing provinces brought new gods into their fold without hesitation, although these new deities often remained off the formal calendars.
Given Rome’s military focus, it is surprising that a war deity like Bellona isn’t more commonly documented. Despite being honored annually during a Feriae on June 3, her origins remain hazy, with scant evidence of her worship before the Republic. Ancient writers like Livy, Ovid, and Virgil reference her in passing, yet academic studies on her are similarly limited. Archaeological findings from inscriptions across the Empire provide some information but leave many questions unanswered.
Generally, Bellona is portrayed wearing combat attire, including a military helmet and armor, while wielding a shield and either a spear, sword, bloody whip, or torch. However, this representation stems from later artistic interpretations, as no originals from antiquity have survived. Such imagery might derive from poetic descriptions emphasizing her violent disposition and chaotic nature.
Bellona was often linked with Mars, the Roman God of War, seen variously as his sister, wife, or charioteer. She is also associated with the deity Nerio, another ancient war goddess, and may have even had divine origins linked to Jupiter. Her Greek counterpart is Enyo, while her connection to the Cappadocian goddess Ma adds layers to her identity. The dramatist William Shakespeare referenced Bellona in Macbeth, hinting at her prominent role in cultural memory.
The goddess appears to have ancient Italic roots associated with Bellum (war), evolving over time into a more extreme representation, particularly through her relationships with the Cappadocian goddess Ma. Her cult included members known as Hastiferi and Bellonari, the latter being more fervent, actively participating in blood rituals during the Dies Sanguinis festival around the Spring Equinox. This grisly event involved self-flagellation and other disturbing acts intended to invoke Bellona’s wrath and favor.
Temples Dedicated to Bellona
Evidence suggests Bellona may have originated as a goddess of the Sabine tribe in central Italy, which contributed to Rome’s early populace following its founding in 753 BC. The Roman scholar Varro noted that she was once called Duellona, a nod to her antiquity. The first known temple dedicated to Bellona was constructed by a Sabine following a significant military triumph during the 3rd Samnite War between 298 and 290 BC. Appius Claudius Caecus prayed to Bellona for victory and vowed to build her a temple if he succeeded—a promise he kept.
This temple, located outside Rome’s walls, played a vital role in the Senate’s affairs, particularly in matters of war. It served as a ceremonial site for official declarations of conflict, marked by the act of a Fetialis priest hurling a spear into enemy territory—an event rooted in the Roman ethos where war had to be just. This practice was first documented in 280 BC during a war against Pyrrhus.
As the temple stood just outside the city, it was a gathering place for victorious generals, waiting for their triumphant entry into Roman jurisdiction, as entering the city meant surrendering military authority. The Senate also utilized the temple for diplomatic meetings denied entry to senators. The significance of this temple was underscored by later cults, connecting it to the cult of Mars and positioning Bellona as an essential deity in Roman military culture.
In addition to the principal temple, a second temple dedicated to Bellona Rufilia may have existed, as indicated by inscriptions. Other likely temples include Bellona Insulensis on Tiber Island and Bellona Pulvinensis in the northern regions of Rome. Inscriptions suggest the latter was tied to the Cappadocian Ma—a connection that further complicated Bellona’s mythology.
A shrine on the Capitoline Hill fell victim to destruction in 48 BC during renovations for the Temples of Isis and Serapis, revealing aspects of her cult that indulged in more frenzied and gory rituals.
Sulla’s Connection to Bellona
Lucius Cornelius Sulla, an influential military leader and notable devotee of Bellona, revived the dictatorship in 81 BC. His connection to the goddess possibly began during time spent in Cappadocia, intertwining his military victories with divine encounters. Sulla’s dreams included Bellona, who allegedly guided his strategies and fated his successful confrontations. His notoriety for violence reflected the darker aspects of her worship; after one battle, he orchestrated a brutal display of vengeance coinciding with the Senate meeting in her temple.
Inscriptions and Worship of Bellona
Although no original artworks depicting Bellona exist, several inscriptions have been uncovered in Rome, pinpointing her significance in both public and private worship. Similar inscriptions were found beyond Rome in locations like Ostia, Numidia, and Britannia, indicating widespread veneration for Bellona across the empire.
Despite her popularity, the rise of Christianity and the changing political landscape saw a decline in Bellona’s standing. During Augustus’s reign, the transition of power diluted the Senate’s influence, diminishing the importance of the temples dedicated to Bellona, particularly as new temples like that of Mars Ultor overshadowed her traditional roles.
