Understanding Bellona: The Roman Goddess of War
Polytheism in Ancient Rome
Before Christianity became the Roman Empire’s official religion in the mid-4th century, Rome embraced a polytheistic belief system where numerous gods were worshipped through festivals and sacrifices year-round. Status held significant importance in this society, leading to veneration of major deities, such as Jupiter, with grand public festivals termed Feriae, celebrated in or around specific temples. These were communal events recognized by the populace, organized by the Senate using public funds on predetermined dates within the Roman calendar.
In contrast, lesser-known gods were not afforded public celebrations but were instead honored through private rituals by individuals or families. Wealthier followers sometimes organized large public events to display their devotion. The pantheon of Roman gods was continually evolving, as the Romans did not hesitate to adopt deities from conquered territories, regardless of their absence from the official calendar.
Bellona: The Mysterious Goddess of War
Given the Romans’ focus on military achievement, one would assume that a prominent war goddess, such as Bellona, would be thoroughly documented. However, despite an annual Feriae held in her honor on June 3rd, details about her origins remain vague, with scant evidence about her cult in pre-republican Rome. Ancient writers like Livy mentioned her temple during senatorial meetings, while poets such as Ovid, Virgil, and others referred to her in their works, though scholarly articles discussing her in detail are sparse. Even the inscriptions unearthed across Rome and its empire only offer partial insight into her figure.
Bellona is typically illustrated in military gear, depicted with a helmet, armor, shield, and weaponry, though these visuals originate from later artistic interpretations, as no original depictions exist. Her representation correlates to poetic accounts highlighting themes of bloodlust, chaos, and slaughter.
She has various relationships with Mars, the Roman God of War, being represented as his spouse, sister, or charioteer. Additionally, she might have been descended from Jupiter, the chief deity of the Roman pantheon, while her Greek counterpart was the goddess Enyo, and in ancient Cappadocia, she was associated with the goddess Ma. Her character inspired works like Shakespeare’s Macbeth, where the chaotic nature of war is allegorically tied to Bellona.
The Cult of Bellona
Initially worshipped by a Sabine tribe in central Italy, Bellona’s association with warfare transformed over time, with her cult becoming increasingly frenzied and bloody. Her priests were known as Hastiferi and Bellonari, with the latter being more extreme members participating in rituals during the Dies Sanguinis festival around the Spring Equinox. This involved self-mutilation as a means to invoke Bellona’s warlike fury while spreading blood among the crowd.
Temples Dedicated to Bellona
The earliest known temple for Bellona was erected by a Sabine shortly after the establishment of Rome in 753 BC. According to Roman scholar Varro, her original name might have been Duellona, directly linking her to war. During the 3rd Samnite War, the consul Appius Claudius Caecus promised to build a temple in her honor if granted victory. Following a substantial battle, he fulfilled this vow, constructing a temple in the Campus Martius near the Circus Flaminus.
This temple became a significant site for the Senate to declare war, as a small marker a soldier purchased transformed the grounds into foreign territory. A priestly group named Fetiales, which was responsible for ensuring that Rome engaged only in just wars, used this site for their ceremonial spear-throwing declarations of war.
Additionally, the temple served as a venue for victorious generals to preside over Senate meetings when engaged in international diplomacy with emissaries who were barred from entering Rome. There was also another temple dedicated to Bellona Rufilia linked to Publius Cornelius Rufinus, a key figure in Roman wars.
Other potential temples dedicated to Bellona, like one on Tiber Island associated with her Cappadocian counterpart and another near the Porta Collina linked to Sulla, are known mainly through inscriptions. Evidence also displays ritualistic practices associated with Eastern deities alongside Bellona’s worship, indicating the blending of cultic practices.
Sulla’s Connection to Bellona
Lucius Cornelius Sulla, a renowned military leader familiar with the cult of Bellona during his time as propraetor, is among her most notable devotees. It is said that some of his key victories were foreshadowed by dreams involving Bellona. Following his critical battle, he convened the Senate in her temple, possibly to orchestrate a moment of fear and power assertion marked by his infamous cruelty towards prisoners.
Inscriptions Honoring Bellona
While no visual representation of Bellona survives, numerous inscriptions dedicated to her have been discovered, affirming her worship across various regions of the Roman Empire, including Ostia and Britannia, during the earlier centuries of the Empire. This admiration was not limited to military factions, as civilians, families, and local officials also contributed to her worship, often funding renovations and restorations of her temples.
Evidence suggests Bellona’s prominence faded, especially after the establishment of Christianity in the 4th century AD, as her association with the more brutal aspects of war became less favorable in the eyes of traditional Romans.
Conclusion
The enigmatic figure of Bellona, the Roman goddess of war, embodies the complexities of Roman religious practices and societal values surrounding warfare. From her roots in ancient Italian traditions to her eventual association with blood and chaos, Bellona represents a fascinating aspect of Rome’s transition from polytheism to Christianity.
