The Ancient Goddess Bellona: A Complex Persona of War
In the polytheistic society that characterized Rome before the official embrace of Christianity in the mid-4th century, the Romans engaged in the worship of numerous deities, celebrating various festivals and making sacrifices throughout the year. This rich tapestry of worship was hierarchical; important gods such as Jupiter (the Supreme Deity) were venerated with public festivals known as Feriae, overseen by the Senate and supported by public finances, all within a prescribed calendar.
Conversely, lesser-known deities did not garnish the same public honor. Instead, their worship was relegated to household or private spheres, although affluent adherents occasionally orchestrated public displays to showcase their piety. The pantheon of Roman gods was inherently adaptable; Romans assimilated gods from conquered lands, integrating them into their own worship practices without requiring official sanction.
Given the emphasis placed on military accomplishments, one would intuitively assume that a goddess of war like Bellona would be prominently recognized among the major deities of Roman religion. While she was indeed honored annually with a festival on June 3rd, the specifics of her cult and origins remain elusive, with scant documentation from early Roman times. Bellona is briefly referenced by several ancient commentators, including Livy, who spoke of her temple housing important senatorial discussions. Furthermore, notable poets from the first century, such as Ovid, Virgil, Tibullus, Statius, Martial, and Juvenal, mentioned her in their works. Unfortunately, contemporary scholarship regarding her is limited, and despite inscriptions unearthed across Rome and the Empire providing some insights, numerous gaps persist in our understanding.
Bellona is typically visualized clad in military gear—helmet and armor—while wielding weapons like a sword or bloody whip. Unfortunately, no original artwork depicting her remains; this image stems from interpretations by artists in the post-Roman era, possibly inspired by first-century literary works that highlighted her bloodthirstiness, chaos, and penchant for violence. Bellona was often associated with Mars, the Roman war god, as his spouse, sister, or charioteer. The complex web of her identity potentially connects her to Nerio, another ancient Roman war goddess and companion of Mars. There are further speculations around her lineage, suggesting she might be descended from Jupiter, the chief deity. In the broader context of ancient mythology, her Greek counterpart was Enyo, while her association in Cappadocia tied her to the goddess Ma, showcasing her widespread cultural resonance even influencing Shakespeare’s writing in Macbeth.
In her earlier incarnation, Bellona might have begun as an Italian deity linked to warfare, her cult evolving over time into one marked by more extreme and frenzied rituals due to her connection with the goddess Ma of Cappadocia. Cult followers, known as Bellonari, practiced fervently during the Dies Sanguinis or Day of Blood festival, themselves engaging in self-harm and offering sacrifices to invoke Bellona’s violent essence. Additionally, the Hastiferi, a distinct order of priests devoted to her, played more subdued roles than the Bellonari, primarily serving as her spear bearers.
Temples Dedicated to Bellona
Bellona’s historical roots may trace back to the central Italian Sabine tribes, who many speculate brought her worship to Rome after its foundation in 753 BC. Renowned Roman scholar Varro documented that her name in early Latin was Duellona, which ties back to early terminologies related to war. The establishment of her first recorded temple by a Sabine during the 3rd Samnite War illustrates her enduring legacy. Livy recounts that during this conflict, the consul Appius Claudius Caecus made a vow to Bellona for victory, subsequently honoring his promise by constructing her temple upon his victorious return to Rome.
This temple, positioned outside the city walls, became a focal point for the Senate, especially for matters concerning war. A small pillar within the temple precinct signified a foreign territory’s demarcation—a critical ritual in the declaration of war involving the Fetialis, a priestly group responsible for upholding just war traditions in Rome. As Rome expanded, the ceremonial practices evolved, leading to significant diplomatic functions being performed at the Temple of Bellona, particularly during declarations of war.
Additionally, this temple was used for welcoming triumphant generals, who remained cautious not to enter the city, thereby retaining their military authority. While the primary temple was crucial, evidence suggests at least two more temples existed, with one possibly commissioned by Publius Cornelius Rufinus in honor of Bellona Rufilia around 290 BC. Romes’ inscriptions also hint at two other temples dedicated to Bellona in different locations, further solidifying her historical significance.
Sulla’s Connection to Bellona
Lucius Cornelius Sulla, a prominent military figure in Roman history, demonstrated a pronounced devotion to Bellona and her violent persona during his time. His military campaigns and ambitions were reputedly preceded by visions from the goddess, influencing strategic decisions in battle. Following the confrontations at the Porta Collina, Sulla uniquely intertwined her worship and military strategies, even holding Senate meetings at her temple to coordinate significant decisions, including mass executions, reinforcing their connection to bloodshed.
Bellona’s Inscriptions
Despite the absence of physical representations of Bellona, inscriptions reveal insights into her worship across the Roman Empire, including temples in Ostia and other locations dedicated to her honor. These inscriptions were not exclusively tied to military demographics; civilians and local leaders contributed to her veneration, underlining her integral role in Roman religious and social practices.
Though Bellona enjoyed widespread reverence until the rise of Christianity as Roman state religion in the 4th century AD, her prominence gradually waned. Over time, as the authoritative role of the Senate diminished and other temples, such as the Temple of Mars Ultor, appropriated her functions, the legacy of Bellona became entwined with increasingly tumultuous interpretations, framed by associations with violent figures like Sulla and diminishing recognition amidst changing religious landscapes.
In conclusion, Bellona serves as a compelling figure in Roman mythology, embodying the complexities of war, societal norms, and evolving religious practices. Her narrative reflects the dynamic nature of the Roman pantheon, evolving worship, and the cultural implications of power and conflict.
