Understanding Bellona: The Roman Goddess of War
Before the establishment of Christianity as the leading faith in the Roman Empire during the mid-4th century, Roman society was marked by polytheism, where a multitude of gods were venerated, accompanied by various festivals and sacrificial rites held throughout the year. This belief system prioritized the veneration of major deities, such as Jupiter, who received grand public festivals known as Feriae, typically organized around recognized temples. These events were communal celebrations funded by state resources and marked in the Roman calendar.
In contrast to these prominent deities, lesser-known gods, often not included in the official calendar, were worshipped privately or within familial settings. Rich adherents sometimes organized elaborate public rituals to exhibit their devotion. The list of Roman gods was ever-expanding and non-exclusive, reflecting an acceptance of new divinities from conquered territories, despite their absence from formal observances.
Given Rome’s deep admiration for military triumphs, one might expect a significant documentation of Bellona, the goddess associated with war. While she was honored through an annual Feriae on June 3rd, information regarding her cult’s origins in pre-republican Rome is limited. Ancient texts mention Bellona sporadically; for example, Livy recounts several meetings of the Senate in her temple, and numerous Roman poets like Ovid and Virgil reference her, but substantial scholarly analysis about her remains scarce.
Artistically, Bellona is typically shown in military garb, adorned with a helmet and armor, wielding a spear, sword, or perhaps a blood-red torch. These visual interpretations stem from writings in the 1st century that emphasize her violent tendencies. Throughout history, Bellona has been linked with Mars, the god of war, in various roles:spouse, sibling, and vehicle driver. She is also associated with the older war goddess, Nerio. Some lore suggests that she could be a progeny of Jupiter, the chief deity, and her Greek counterpart was Enyo, while in Cappadocia, she is linked to the goddess Ma. Shakespeare even drew inspiration from her character in “Macbeth.”
The narrative of Bellona appears to derive from the ancient Italian goddess linked to the concept of war, evolving through her integration with Cappadocian traditions into a more chaotic and savage identity. Her priests, notably those known as Hastiferi and Bellonari, engaged in transformative rituals around the Spring Equinox that included extreme acts of self-harm to invoke her bloodthirst. These activities were thought to amplify her wrath for warfare.
The Temples of Bellona
Originally, Bellona may have had ties to the ancient Sabine people who settled in Rome. Scholar Varro indicates this goddess was referred to as Duellona in early Latin, highlighting her longstanding roots. Her first known temple was constructed by a Sabine after a decisive battle against the combined forces of Etruscans and Gauls. Appius Claudius Caecus, a Roman consul, vowed to erect a temple for Bellona in return for victory—a dedication that marked her prominence in martial traditions.
Strategically positioned just beyond Rome’s walls, the Temple of Bellona fostered relationships with the Senate, serving as the backdrop for numerous war-related deliberations. This temple was where formal declarations of war were made—a ritual that involved the Fetiales priests hurling a spear onto enemy territory, marking the beginning of hostilities. The temple’s environment also hosted returning Roman generals who sought triumphal honors without entering the city limits.
There is evidence of multiple temples dedicated to her, including one likely built in the Augustan Region III by Publius Cornelius Rufinus. Inscriptions suggest the existence of other sites, including one possibly situated on Tiber Island and another near the Porta Collina, attributable to connections with the goddess Ma. A shrine on Capitoline Hill suffered destruction in 48 BC, revealing artifacts that indicate the prevalence of bloodthirsty rites.
Sulla and His Connection with Bellona
Lucius Cornelius Sulla, a renowned military leader and influential politician, is one of the most notable followers of Bellona. His military ascendancy coincided with encounters that fortified his belief in her powers. Historical accounts suggest he received visions or ominous dreams from Bellona, prompting him to eliminate numerous adversaries in battle. His ruthless tendencies toward his enemies paralleled Bellona’s fierce nature, solidifying their association in the Roman psyche.
Inscriptions and Legacy
While no classical depictions capture Bellona’s image, inscriptions devoted to her worship remain, with several located in Rome. Evidence exists of temples and altars honoring her outside the city, extending throughout the provinces of the Roman Empire. Devotion to Bellona was not limited to military personnel; various social classes contributed to her temples, indicating widespread reverence.
Despite her initial significance, Bellona’s veneration waned as Christianity gained traction. The ascendance of Augustus, who shifted focus to Mars Ultor by erecting a temple in his honor, diminished Bellona’s standing further as Roman war rituals became centralized around new architectural monuments. Remaining historical fragments of Bellona today echo her past as a fierce warrior goddess while showcasing how beliefs transformed over time.
