Roman Religion: An Overview of Beliefs and Practices
Roman religion, encompassing the beliefs and practices of the inhabitants of the Italian peninsula from ancient times until the rise of Christianity in the 4th century CE during Classical antiquity, stands as a fascinating study of spirituality and cultural identity. According to Cicero, a notable Roman orator and politician, the Romans distinguished themselves from other peoples through their remarkable insight: the understanding that all things are ultimately subordinate to divine influence. However, Roman religion did not revolve around the idea of divine grace; rather, it was founded on mutual trust (fides) between deities and humans. The main objective was to ensure the favor, cooperation, and “peace” of the gods, known as pax deorum. This belief in divine assistance helped the Romans navigate the unknown forces around them, which elicited a sense of awe and anxiety, encapsulated in the term religio. By nurturing this relationship, Romans sought to lead successful lives.
To facilitate this connection, a comprehensive set of rules existed, termed jus divinum or “divine law,” dictating necessary rituals and prohibitions. For many centuries, this body of guidelines lacked a moral dimension and primarily focused on the correct execution of ceremonial acts. Roman religious practice emphasized cult activities, imbuing them with the sanctity of patriotic tradition. The careful and traditional nature of these ceremonies was so pronounced that remnants of early religious thought linger just beneath the surface, contrasting with Greek religion, where such elements are often obscured.
While the Greeks had developed more sophisticated and abstract notions of divinity by the time they first documented their beliefs, Romans maintained a more ordered, legalistic approach to their religious practices. Until they were influenced by Greek mythology, Romans rarely depicted their gods in human forms. In effect, one could argue that true Roman mythology is virtually nonexistent. Despite archaeological discoveries in the 20th century, particularly in Etruria, indicating that Italians possessed some mythological traditions, the mythology associated with Rome remains minimal. What emerges primarily serves as a pseudomythology, where nationalistic or familial tales were clothed in borrowed Greek mythos.
Furthermore, Roman religion lacked a formal creed. As long as an individual engaged in the appropriate religious rituals, they were free to hold personal beliefs regarding the gods. This absence of a creed often led to a disregard for emotional expressions in worship. Although archaic religious traits can still be perceived, the challenge of succinctly tracing the history and evolution of Roman religion persists. The major literary sources available, including the works of antiquarians like Varro and Verrius Flaccus, as well as contemporary poets from the late Republic and Augustus’s time, were penned 700 to 800 years after the inception of Rome. This gap in time coupled with the influx of Greek influences led to flawed yet flattering narratives regarding Rome’s ancient past.
To reconstruct the fabric of Roman religion, scholars also rely on remnants of religious calendars, various inscriptions, as well as symbolic representations found in coins and medallions, along with artistic expressions.
Early Roman Religious Practices
In the context of archaic Roman religion, archaeological findings are instrumental, albeit insufficient for providing a complete reconstruction. Evidence suggests that during the early 1st millennium BCE, although not necessarily coinciding with the legendary founding date of Rome (753 BCE), Latin and Sabine farmers and shepherds migrated from the Alban and Sabine Hills to establish settlements on the Palatine Hill and potentially the Quirinal and Esquiline hills. The eventual merging of these communities around 620 BCE led to the establishment of the Forum Romanum as the central meeting and trading space by approximately 575 BCE.
The Romans exhibited a unique perspective towards divinity, often equating it with natural phenomena and human functions. They revered divine forces in ordinary acts, such as childbirth, or in the movements of celestial bodies and the agricultural cycle. In moments of extraordinary events, they might even attribute significance to unique occurrences, such as a mysterious voice that guided them during a crisis (referring to Aius Locutius). This tendency manifested as an extensive network of functional deities representing various aspects of life, resulting in a form of “religious atomism” characterized by a multitude of deities, each associated with specific life functions. For effective communication with these divinities, it was crucial to use their correct names; knowledge of a deity’s name was believed to enhance one’s chance of divine attention. In cases where names were unknown, Romans often relied on vague references, acknowledging a divinity as “unknown” or including phrases like “or whatever name you wish to be called.”
